https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7927-1203
Abstract
Owing to soft clay’s high water content and low strength, the large volumes of it that are excavated during coastal and waterway construction must be disposed of by being dumped on vacant land or used as fill, and results in increasingly serious environmental problems. Another important regional environmental problem is the large volumes of coal fly ash (CFA) produced by coal-fired power plants. Soft clay disposal methods that can also use CFA can have important practical significance for infrastructure construction projects and can also help the regional economies in areas with limited land resources. At present, microbially induced calcium carbonate precipitation (MICP) is used to strengthen sandy material with high porosity and permeability. Because of the special chemical compositions and complex mechanical properties of both soft clay and CFA, studies on the solidification of soft clay-CFA mixtures by microbial methods are rare. This paper describes the results of systematic MICP curing tests on composite soft clay samples with different amounts of added CFA. Changes in the strength of MICP/CFA-cured soft clay samples and X-ray diffraction analyses are used to study the MICP strengthening mechanisms. The results show the following conclusions. (1) Using composite MICP/CFA solidification can effectively improve the strength of soft clay. The clay unconfined compressive strength can be increased by a factor of 5.96. (2) MICP/CFA-aided solidification cements soft clay particles together and reduces water content by consuming the free water of soft clay during their respective reactions. (3) MICP and CFA synergistically enhance the strength of soft clay, and the solidification effect is more obvious for low water content soft clay. (4) There is an optimal composite ratio under the experimental conditions with a 0.75 mol/L bacterial nutrient concentration; the optimal composite ratio for curing is 30% water content of soft clay with 30% CFA.
Issue Section:
Technical Papers
References
1.
Cargill
K. W.
, “Prediction of Consolidation of Very Soft Soil
,” Journal of Geotechnical Engineering
110
, no. 6
(June 1984
): 775
–795
, https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9410(1984)110:6(775)2.
Lee
S. L.
, Karunaratne
G. P.
, Yong
K. Y.
, and Ganeshan
V.
, “Layered Clay-Sand Scheme of Land Reclamation
,” Journal of Geotechnical Engineering
113
, no. 9
(September 1987
): 984
–995
, https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9410(1987)113:9(984)3.
Ji
F. L.
, Zhu
W.
, and Zhang
C. L.
, “Study of Treatment Technology of Dredging Sludge with Geosynthetizing Method
” (in Chinese), Rock and Soil Mechanics
25
, no. 12
(December 2004
): 1999
–2002
, https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1000-7598.2004.12.0294.
Leroueil
S.
and Rowe
R. K.
, “Embankments over Soft Soil and Peat
,” in Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering Handbook
, ed. Rowe
R. K.
(Boston, MA
: Springer
, 2001
), 463
–499
.5.
Pecchioli
J. A.
, “Disposal of Contaminated Sediments in NY/NJ Harber
,” in Second International Conference on Dredging and Dredged Material Placement
(New York
: American Society of Civil Engineers
, 1994
), 606
–615
.6.
Deng
D. S.
, Zhang
T. J.
, Zhang
S.
, and Hong
Z. S.
, “Technique for Utilization of High-Water-Content Dredged Clayey Soil as Fill Material for the Eastern Route of South-to-North Water Diversion Project
” (in Chinese), Journal of Hohai University (Natural Sciences)
36
, no. 4
(July 2008
): 559
–562
, https://doi.org/10.3876/j.issn.1000-1980.2008.04.0287.
Fowler
J.
, Sprague
C. J.
, Toups
D.
, and Engler
R. M.
, Dredged Material-Filled Geotextile Containers, ADA381381
(Vicksburg, MS: Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station Vicksburg MS Environmental Lab
, 1995
).8.
Koukouzas
N. K.
, Zeng
R.
, Perdikatsis
V.
, Xu
W.
, and Kakaras
E. K.
, “Mineralogy and Geochemistry of Greek and Chinese Coal Fly Ash
,” Fuel
85
, no. 16
(November 2006
): 2301
–2309
, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2006.02.0199.
He
Y.
, Luo
Q.
, and Hu
H.
, “Situation Analysis and Countermeasures of China's Fly Ash Pollution Prevention and Control
,” Procedia Environmental Sciences
16
(December 2012
): 690
–696
, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.proenv.2012.10.09510.
Wang
S.
, Zhang
Y.
, Gu
Y.
, Wang
J.
, Liu
Z.
, Zhang
Y.
, Cao
Y.
, Romero
C. E.
, and Pan
W. P.
, “Using Modified Fly Ash for Mercury Emissions Control for Coal-Fired Power Plant Applications in China
,” Fuel
181
, no. 1
(October 2016
): 1230
–1237
, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2016.02.04311.
Ouhadi
V. R.
, Yong
R. N.
, and Deiranlou
M.
, “Enhancement of Cement-Based Solidification/Stabilization of a Lead-Contaminated Smectite Clay
,” Journal of Hazardous Materials
403
, no. 1
(February 2021
): 123969, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2020.12396912.
Glasser
F. P.
, “Fundamental Aspects of Cement Solidification and Stabilization
,” Journal of Hazardous Materials
52
, nos. 2–3
(April 1997
): 151
–170
, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0304-3894(96)01805-513.
Ahmed
A.
, Soliman
A. M.
, El Naggar
M. H.
, and Kamei
T.
, “An Assessment of Geo-Environmental Properties for Utilization of Recycled Gypsum in Earthwork Projects
,” Soils and Foundations
55
, no. 5
(October 2015
): 1139
–1147
, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sandf.2015.09.01414.
Yadu
L.
and Tripathi
R. K.
, “Effects of Granulated Blast Furnace Slag in the Engineering Behaviour of Stabilized Soft Soil
,” Procedia Engineering
51
(April 2013
): 125
–131
, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.proeng.2013.01.01915.
Deepak
M. S.
, Rohini
S.
, Harini
B. S.
, and Ananthi
G.
, “Influence of Fly-Ash on the Engineering Characteristics of Stabilised Clay Soil
,” Materials Today: Proceedings
37
, Part 2
(August 2020
): 2014–2018, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2020.07.49716.
Abbas
S.
, Saleem
M. A.
, Kazmi
S. M. S.
, and Munir
M. J.
, “Production of Sustainable Clay Bricks Using Waste Fly Ash: Mechanical and Durability Properties
,” Journal of Building Engineering
14
(November 2017
): 7
–14
, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobe.2017.09.00817.
Tomohisa
S.
, Sawa
K.
, and Naitoh
N.
, “Hedoro Hardening Treatment by Industrial Wastes
” (in Japanese), Journal of the Society of Materials Science
44
, no. 503
(August 1995
): 1023
–1026
, https://doi.org/10.2472/jsms.44.102318.
Chen
M. G.
, Yang
G. L.
, and Yu
L. Y.
, “Experimental Study on Solidification and Stabilization of Polluted Silt Using Fly Ash and Sodium Hydroxide
” (in Chinese), Journal of Huazhong University of Science and Technology (Natural Science Edition)
41
, no. 10
(October 2013
): 123
–127
, https://doi.org/10.13245/j.hust.2013.10.01319.
Nalbantoglu
Z.
and Gucbilmez
E.
, “Improvement of Calcareous Expansive Soils in Semi-arid Environments
,” Journal of Arid Environments
47
, no. 4
(April 2001
): 453
–463
, https://doi.org/10.1006/jare.2000.072620.
Shirazi
H.
, “Field and Laboratory Evaluation of the Use of Lime Fly Ash to Replace Soil Cement as a Base Course
,” Transportation Research Record
1652
, no. 1
(January 1999
): 270
–275
, https://doi.org/10.3141/1652-3421.
Miller
G. A.
and Zaman
M.
, “Field and Laboratory Evaluation of Cement Kiln Dust as a Soil Stabilizer
,” Transportation Research Record
1714
, no. 1
(January 2000
): 25
–32
, https://doi.org/10.3141/1714-0422.
Marín
S.
, Cabestrero
O.
, Demergasso
C.
, Olivares
S.
, Zetola
V.
, and Vera
M.
, “An Indigenous Bacterium with Enhanced Performance of Microbially-Induced Ca-Carbonate Biomineralization under Extreme Alkaline Conditions for Concrete and Soil-Improvement Industries
,” Acta Biomaterialia
120
, no. 15
(January 2021
): 304
–317
, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actbio.2020.11.01623.
Whiffin
V. S.
, van Paassen
L. A.
, and Harkes
M. P.
, “Microbial Carbonate Precipitation as a Soil Improvement Technique
,” Geomicrobiology Journal
24
, no. 5
(August 2007
): 417
–423
, https://doi.org/10.1080/0149045070143650524.
Wu
Y.
, Tahmasebi
P.
, Lin
C.
, Zahid
M. A.
, Dong
C.
, Golab
A. N.
, and Ren
L.
, “A Comprehensive Study on Geometric, Topological and Fractal Characterizations of Pore Systems in Low-Permeability Reservoirs Based on SEM, MICP, NMR, and X-ray CT Experiments
,” Marine and Petroleum Geology
103
(May 2019
): 12
–28
, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpetgeo.2019.02.00325.
Mujah
D.
, Shahin
M.
, and Cheng
L.
, “State-of-the-Art Review of Biocementation by Microbially Induced Calcite Precipitation (MICP) for Soil Stabilization
,” Geomicrobiology
34
, no. 6
(August 2016
): 524
–537
, https://doi.org/10.1080/01490451.2016.122586626.
Lin
H.
, Suleiman
M. T.
, and Brown
D. G.
, “Investigation of Pore-Scale CaCO3 Distributions and Their Effects on Stiffness and Permeability of Sands Treated by Microbially Induced Carbonate Precipitation (MICP)
,” Soils and Foundations
60
, no. 4
(August 2020
): 944
–961
, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sandf.2020.07.00327.
Jongvivatsakul
P.
, Janprasit
K.
, Nuaklong
P.
, Pungrasmi
W.
, and Likitlersuang
S.
, “Investigation of the Crack Healing Performance in Mortar Using Microbially Induced Calcium Carbonate Precipitation (MICP) Method
,” Construction and Building Materials
212
, no. 10
(July 2019
): 737
–744
, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2019.04.03528.
Salifu
E.
, Maclachlan
E.
, Iyer
K. R.
, Knapp
C. W.
, and Tarantino
A.
, “Application of Microbially Induced Calcite Precipitation in Erosion Mitigation and Stabilisation of Sandy Soil Foreshore Slopes: A Preliminary Investigation
,” Engineering Geology
201
, no. 4
(February 2016
): 96
–105
, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2015.12.02729.
Sharma
M.
, Satyam
N.
, and Reddy
K. R.
, “Effect of Freeze-Thaw Cycles on Engineering Properties of Biocemented Sand under Different Treatment Conditions
,” Engineering Geology
284
(April 2021
): 106022, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2021.10602230.
Cardoso
R.
, Pires
I.
, Duarte
S. O. D.
, and Monteiro
G. A.
, “Effects of Clay’s Chemical Interactions on Biocementation.
” Applied Clay Science
156
(May 2018
): 96
–103
, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clay.2018.01.03531.
Morales
L.
, Romero
E.
, Jommi
C.
, Garzón
E.
, and Giménez
A.
, “Feasibility of a Soft Biological Improvement of Natural Soils Used in Compacted Linear Earth Construction
,” Acta Geotechnica
10
, no. 1
(February 2015
): 157
–171
, https://doi.org/10.1007/s11440-014-0344-x32.
Morales
L.
, Garzón
E.
, Romero
E.
, and Sánchez-Soto
P. J.
, “Microbiological Induced Carbonate (CaCO3) Precipitation Using Clay Phyllites to Replace Chemical Stabilizers (Cement or Lime)
,” Applied Clay Science
174
, no. 15
(June 2019
): 15
–28
, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clay.2019.03.01833.
Dhami
N. K.
, Mukherjee
A.
, and Reddy
M. S.
, “Viability of Calcifying Bacterial Formulations in Fly Ash for Applications in Building Materials
,” Journal of Industrial Microbiology and Biotechnology
40
, no. 12
(December 2013
): 1403
–1413
, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10295-013-1338-734.
Xiao
J. Z.
, Wei
Y. Q.
, Cai
H.
, Wang
Z. W.
, Yang
T.
, Wang
Q. H.
, and Wu
S. F.
, “Microbial-Induced Carbonate Precipitation for Strengthening Soft Clay
,” Advances in Materials Science and Engineering
2020 (April 2020
): 8140724, https://doi.org/10.1155/2020/814072435.
Li
M.
, Cheng
X. H.
, and Guo
H. X.
, “Heavy Metal Removal by Biomineralization of Urease Producing Bacteria Isolated from Soil
,” International Biodeterioration & Biodegradation
76
(January 2013
): 81
–85
, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ibiod.2012.06.01636.
Yang
Z.
and Cheng
X. H.
, "A Performance Study of High-Strength Microbial Mortar Produced by Low Pressure Grouting for the Reinforcement of Deteriorated Masonry Structures
," Construction and Building Materials
41
(April 2013
): 505
–515
, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2012.12.05537.
Standard for Geotechnical Testing Method
, GB/T50123-2019 (in Chinese) (Beijing, China: China Water & Power Press
, 2019
).38.
Test Specification for Unconfined Compressive Strength of Cohesive Soil, ASTM D2166-00 (West Conshohocken, PA:
ASTM International
, approved June 10, 2000
), https://doi.org/10.1520/D2166-0039.
Shi
X. S.
and Herle
I.
, “Modeling the Compression Behavior of Remolded Clay Mixtures
,” Computers and Geotechnics
80
(December 2016
): 215
–225
, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compgeo.2016.07.00740.
Elseewi
A. A.
, Straughan
I. R.
, and Page
A. L.
, “Sequential Cropping of Fly Ash-Amended Soils: Effects on Soil Chemical Properties and Yield and Elemental Composition of Plants
,” Science of the Total Environment
15
, no. 3
(August 1980
): 247
–259
, https://doi.org/10.1016/0048-9697(80)90053-441.
Ghodrati
M.
, Sims
J. T.
, Vasilas
B. L.
, and Hendricks
S. E.
, “95/05947 Enhancing the Benefits of Fly Ash as a Soil Amendment by Pre-leaching
,” Fuel and Energy Abstracts
36
, no. 6
(November 1995
): 423, https://doi.org/10.1016/0140-6701(95)97595-B42.
Siddique
R.
, Singh
K.
, Kunal
K.
, Singh
M.
, Corinaldesi
V.
, and Rajor
A.
, “Properties of Bacterial Rice Husk Ash Concrete
,” Construction and Building Materials
121
, no. 15
(September 2016
): 112
–119
, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2016.05.14643.
Analysis Method for Clay Minerals and Ordinary Non-clay Minerals in Sedimentary Rocks by the X-ray Diffraction
, SY/T 5163-2010 (in Chinese) (Beijing, China
: Petroleum Industry Press
, 2010
).44.
Sezer
A.
, İnan
G.
, Yılmaz
H. R.
, and Ramyar
K.
, "Utilization of a Very High Lime Fly Ash for Improvement of Izmir Clay
," Building and Environment
41
, no. 2
(February 2006
): 150
–155
, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2004.12.00945.
Cristelo
N.
, Glendinning
S.
, Fernandes
L.
, and Pinto
A. T.
, “Effects of Alkaline-Activated Fly Ash and Portland Cement on Soft Soil Stabilization
,” Acta Geotechnica
8
, no. 4
(August 2013
): 395
–405
, https://doi.org/10.1007/s11440-012-0200-946.
Cristelo
N.
, Glendinning
S.
, and Jalali
S.
, “Sub-bases Layers of Residual Granite Soil Stabilised with Lime
,” Soils Rocks
32
, no. 2
(May 2009
): 83
–88
.47.
Komonweeraket
K.
, Cetin
B.
, Aydilek
A. H.
, Benson
C. H.
, and Edil
T. B.
, “Effects of pH on the Leaching Mechanisms of Elements from Fly Ash Mixed Soils
,” Fuel
140
, no. 15
(January 2015
): 788
–802
, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2014.09.06848.
Payá
J.
, Monzó
J.
, Borrachero
M. V.
, and Peris-Mora
E.
, “Mechanical Treatment of Fly Ashes. Part I: Physico-Chemical Characterization of Ground Fly Ashes
,” Cement and Concrete Research
25
, no. 7
(October 1995
): 1469
–1479
, https://doi.org/10.1016/0008-8846(95)00141-X49.
Stocks-Fischer
S.
, Galinat
J. K.
, and Bang
S. S.
, “Microbiological Precipitation of CaCO3
,” Soil Biology and Biochemistry
31
, no. 11
(October 1999
): 1563
–1571
, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0038-0717(99)00082-650.
Gorospe
C. M.
, Han
S.-H.
, Kim
S.-G.
, Park
J.-Y.
, Kang
C.-H.
, Jeong
J.-H.
, and So
J.-S.
, “Effects of Different Calcium Salts on Calcium Carbonate Crystal Formation by Sporosarcina Pasteurii KCTC 3558
,” Biotechnology and Bioprocess Engineering
18
, no. 5
(October 2013
): 903
–908
, https://doi.org/10.1007/s12257-013-0030-051.
Zaady
E.
, Katra
I.
, Barkai
D.
, Knoll
Y.
, and Sarig
S.
, “The Coupling Effects of Using Coal Fly-Ash and Bio-Inoculant for Rehabilitation of Disturbed Biocrusts in Active Sand Dunes
,” Land Degradation & Development
28
, no. 4
(March 2016
): 1228
–1236
, https://doi.org/10.1002/ldr.251052.
Justnes
H.
, Skocek
J.
, Østnor
T. A.
, Engelsen
C. J.
, and Skjølsvold
O.
, “Microstructural Changes of Hydrated Cement Blended with Fly Ash upon Carbonation
,” Cement and Concrete Research
137
(November 2020
): 106192, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconres.2020.10619253.
Kaniraj
S. R.
and Havanagi
V. G.
, “Compressive Strength of Cement Stabilized Fly Ash-Soil Mixtures
,” Cement and Concrete Research
29
, no. 5
(May 1999
): 673
–677
, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0008-8846(99)00018-654.
Whiffin
V. S.
, “Microbial CaCO3 Precipitation for the Production of Biocement
” (PhD diss., Murdoch University
, 2004
).
This content is only available via PDF.
All rights reserved. This material may not be reproduced or copied, in whole or part, in any printed, mechanical, electronic, film, or other distribution and storage media, without the written consent of ASTM International.
You do not currently have access to this content.
