https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1266-1909
Abstract
Seepage-induced suffusion involves the migration of fine particles within a soil matrix. Seepage flow is affected by the soil permeability anisotropy of anisotropic soil fabric; however, suffusion anisotropy is unclear because of the limited function of existing permeameters. In recent studies, the effect of seepage direction has been investigated under only low hydraulic gradients because the control of seepage direction relies merely on gravity. In this study, a new, large-sized permeameter is developed with which suffusion tests can be conducted along horizontal or vertical seepage directions under high hydraulic gradients. Correspondingly, the permeameter can accommodate a specimen of 540 × 500 × 470 or 540 × 540 × 440 mm3 (length × width × height). The seepage direction is switched by changing the boundary conditions of the specimen with detachable perforated plates that allow pressurized water originating from different inlets to flow along horizontal or vertical directions. Two repeated pairs of tests were performed on a gap-graded clayey gravel to investigate the suffusion anisotropy of saturated clayey gravel. The results show that the maximum relative deviations of measurements for initial hydraulic conductivity, initiation, and failure hydraulic gradients are less than 3.5 %, demonstrating satisfactory reliability. The ratio of the initial horizontal hydraulic conductivity to vertical hydraulic conductivity for the test soil is 13.87, indicating a significantly anisotropic fabric induced by compaction. The ratios of horizontal initiation and failure hydraulic gradients to vertical initiation and failure hydraulic gradients are 0.52 and 0.59, respectively. This implies that suffusion anisotropy should not be neglected for evaluating the internal instability of anisotropic soils.
Issue Section:
Technical Papers
References
1.
ASTM International.
2017
. Standard Practice for Classification of Soils for Engineering Purposes (Unified Soil Classification System)
. ASTM D2487-17e1. West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM International
, approved December 15, 2017
. https://doi.org/10.1520/D2487-17E012.
ASTM International.
2016
. Standard Test Methods for Measurement of Hydraulic Conductivity of Saturated Porous Materials Using a Flexible Wall Permeameter
. ASTM D5084-16a. West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM International
, approved August 15, 2016
. https://doi.org/10.1520/D5084-16A3.
ASTM International.
2021
. Standard Test Method for Soil Compaction Determination at Shallow Depths Using 2.3-kg [5-lbm] Dynamic Cone Penetrometer
. ASTM D7380M-21. West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM International
, approved November 1, 2021
. https://doi.org/10.1520/D7380_D7380M-214.
Bagarello
, V.
, Sferlazza
S.
, and Sgroi
A.
. 2009
. “Testing Laboratory Methods to Determine the Anisotropy of Saturated Hydraulic Conductivity in a Sandy-Loam Soil
.” Geoderma
154
, nos. 1–2
(December): 52
–58
. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoderma.2009.09.0125.
Benamar
, A.
, Correia dos Santos
R. N.
, Bennabi
A.
, and Karoui
T.
. 2019
. “Suffusion Evaluation of Coarse-Graded Soils from Rhine Dikes
.” Acta Geotechnica
14
, no. 3
(June): 815
–823
. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11440-019-00782-16.
Bendahmane
, F.
, Marot
D.
, and Alexis
A.
. 2008
. “Experimental Parametric Study of Suffusion and Backward Erosion
.” Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering
134
, no. 1
(January): 57
–67
. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)1090-0241(2008)134:1(57)7.
Benson
, C. H.
, Chen
J. N.
, Edil
T. B.
, and Likos
W. J.
. 2018
. “Hydraulic Conductivity of Compacted Soil Liners Permeated with Coal Combustion Product Leachates
.” Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering
144
, no. 4
(April): 04018011. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)GT.1943-5606.00018558.
Chang
, D. S.
and Zhang
L. M.
. 2011
. “A Stress-Controlled Erosion Apparatus for Studying Internal Erosion in Soils
.” Geotechnical Testing Journal
34
, no. 6
(November): 579
–589
. https://doi.org/10.1520/GTJ1038899.
Chang
, D. S.
and Zhang
L. M.
. 2013
. “Critical Hydraulic Gradients of Internal Erosion under Complex Stress States
.” Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering
139
, no. 9
(September): 1454
–1467
. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)GT.1943-5606.000087110.
Chapuis
, R. P.
, Gill
D. E.
, and Baass
K.
. 1989
. “Laboratory Permeability Tests on Sand: Influence of the Compaction Method on Anisotropy
.” Canadian Geotechnical Journal
26
, no. 4
(November): 614
–622
. https://doi.org/10.1139/t89-07411.
Chen
, R.
, Lei
W.
, and Li
Z.
. 2014
. “Anisotropic Shear Strength Characteristics of a Tailings Sand
.” Environmental Earth Sciences
71
, no. 12
(June): 5165
–5172
. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-013-2918-612.
Chen
, R.
, Liu
L.
, Li
Z.
, Deng
G.
, Zhang
Y.
, and Zhang
Y.
. 2021
. “A Novel Vertical Stress-Controlled Apparatus for Studying Suffusion along Horizontal Seepage through Soils
.” Acta Geotechnica
16
, no. 7
(July): 2217
–2230
. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11440-021-01164-213.
Cheng
, D.-H.
, Chen
X.-H.
, Huo
A.-D.
, Gao
M.
, and Wang
W.-K.
. 2013
. “Influence of Bedding Orientation on the Anisotropy of Hydraulic Conductivity in a Well-Sorted Fluvial Sediment
.” International Journal of Sediment Research
28
, no. 1
(March): 118
–125
. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1001-6279(13)60024-414.
Dassanayake
, S. M.
and Mousa
A.
. 2022
. “Flow Dependent Constriction-Size Distribution in Gap-Graded Soils: A Statistical Interference
.” Géotechnique Letters
12
, no. 1
(March): 46
–54
. https://doi.org/10.1680/jgele.21.0003915.
Dassanayake
, S. M.
, Mousa
A. A.
, Ilankoon
S.
, and Fowmes
G. J.
. 2022
. “Internal Instability in Soils: A Critical Review of the Fundamentals and Ramifications
.” Transportation Research Record: Journal of the Transportation Research Board
2676
, no. 4
(April): 1
–26
. https://doi.org/10.1177/0361198121105690816.
Deng
, G.
, Zhang
L.-L.
, Chen
R.
, Liu
L.-L.
, Shu
K.-X.
, and Zhou
Z.-L.
. 2020
. “Experimental Investigation on Suffusion Characteristics of Cohesionless Soils along Horizontal Seepage Flow under Controlled Vertical Stress
.” Frontiers in Earth Science
8
(June): 195. https://doi.org/10.3389/feart.2020.0019517.
Fannin
, R. J.
and Moffat
R.
. 2006
. “Observations on Internal Stability of Cohesionless Soils
.” Géotechnique
56
, no. 7
(September): 497
–500
. https://doi.org/10.1680/geot.2006.56.7.49718.
Horikoshi
, K.
and Takahashi
A.
. 2015
. “Suffusion-Induced Change in Spatial Distribution of Fine Fractions in Embankment Subjected to Seepage Flow
.” Soils and Foundations
55
, no. 5
(October): 1293
–1304
. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sandf.2015.09.02719.
Huang
, D.
, Huang
W.-B.
, Ke
C.-Y.
, and Song
Y.-X.
. 2021
. “Experimental Investigation on Seepage Erosion of the Soil-Rock Interface
.” Bulletin of Engineering Geology and the Environment
80
, no. 4
(April): 3115
–3137
. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10064-021-02104-w20.
Indiketiya
, S.
, Jegatheesan
P.
, and Rajeev
P.
. 2017
. “Evaluation of Defective Sewer Pipe-Induced Internal Erosion and Associated Ground Deformation Using Laboratory Model Test
.” Canadian Geotechnical Journal
54
, no. 8
(August): 1184
–1195
. https://doi.org/10.1139/cgj-2016-055821.
Ke
, L.
and Takahashi
A.
. 2012
. “Strength Reduction of Cohesionless Soil due to Internal Erosion Induced by One-Dimensional Upward Seepage Flow
.” Soils and Foundations
52
, no. 4
(August): 698
–711
. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sandf.2012.07.01022.
Ke
, L.
and Takahashi
A.
. 2014
a. “Experimental Investigations on Suffusion Characteristics and Its Mechanical Consequences on Saturated Cohesionless Soil
.” Soils and Foundations
54
, no. 4
(August): 713
–730
. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sandf.2014.06.02423.
Ke
, L.
and Takahashi
A.
. 2014
b. “Triaxial Erosion Test for Evaluation of Mechanical Consequences of Internal Erosion
.” Geotechnical Testing Journal
37
, no. 2
(March): 347
–364
. https://doi.org/10.1520/GTJ2013004924.
Kenney
, T. C.
and Lau
D.
. 1985
. “Internal Stability of Granular Filters
.” Canadian Geotechnical Journal
22
, no. 2
(May): 215
–225
. https://doi.org/10.1139/t85-02925.
Kézdi
, A.
1979
. Soil Physics: Selected Topics-Developments in Geotechnical Engineering
. Amsterdam, the Netherlands
: Elsevier Science Ltd
.26.
Kovács
, G.
1981
. Seepage Hydraulics
, vol. 10. Budapest, Hungary: Elsevier Science Ltd
.27.
Li
, M.
and Fannin
R. J.
. 2008
. “Comparison of Two Criteria for Internal Stability of Granular Soil
.” Canadian Geotechnical Journal
45
, no. 9
(September): 1303
–1309
. https://doi.org/10.1139/T08-04628.
Liang
, Y.
, Jim Yeh
T.-C.
, Chen
Q.
, Xu
W.
, Dang
X.
, and Hao
Y.
. 2019
. “Particle Erosion in Suffusion under Isotropic and Anisotropic Stress States
.” Soils and Foundations
59
, no. 5
(October): 1371
–1384
. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sandf.2019.06.00929.
Liang
, Y.
, Zeng
C.
, Wang
J.-J.
, Liu
M.-W.
, Jim Yeh
T.-C.
, and Zha
Y.-Y.
. 2017
. “Constant Gradient Erosion Apparatus for Appraisal of Piping Behavior in Upward Seepage Flow
.” Geotechnical Testing Journal
40
, no. 4
(July): 630
–642
. https://doi.org/10.1520/GTJ2015028230.
Luo
, Y. L.
, Jin
X.
, Li
X.
, Zhan
M. L.
, and Sheng
J. C.
. 2013
. “A New Apparatus for Evaluation of Contact Erosion at the Soil-Structure Interface
.” Geotechnical Testing Journal
36
, no. 2
(March): 256
–263
. https://doi.org/10.1520/GTJ2012009431.
Luo
, Y.-L.
, Zhang
X.-J.
, Zhang
H.-B.
, Sheng
J.-C.
, Zhan
M.-L.
, Wang
H.-M.
, and He
S.-Y.
. 2022
. “Review of Suffusion in Deep Alluvium Foundation
” (in Chinese). Rock and Soil Mechanics
2022
, no. 11
: 3094
–3106
. https://doi.org/10.16285/j.rsm.2021.217532.
Ma
, D.
, Li
Q.
, Cai
K.-C.
, Zhang
J.-X.
, Li
Z.-H.
, Hou
W.-T.
, Sun
Q.
, Li
M.
, and Du
F.
. 2023
. “Understanding Water Inrush Hazard of Weak Geological Structure in Deep Mine Engineering: A Seepage-Induced Erosion Model Considering Tortuosity
.” Journal of Central South University
30
, no. 2
(February): 517
–529
. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11771-023-5261-433.
Mao
, C.-X.
2005
. “Study on Piping and Filters: Part I of Piping
” (in Chinese). Yantu Lixue
26
, no. 2
(February): 209
–215
. https://doi.org/10.16285/j.rsm.2005.02.00834.
Marot
, D.
, Bendahmane
F.
, Rosquoet
F.
, and Alexis
A.
. 2009
. “Internal Flow Effects on Isotropic Confined Sand-Clay Mixtures
.” Soil and Sediment Contamination: An International Journal
18
, no. 3
: 294
–306
. https://doi.org/10.1080/1532038090279952435.
Marot
, D.
, Rochim
A.
, Nguyen
H.-H.
, Bendahmane
F.
, and Sibille
L.
. 2016
. “Assessing the Susceptibility of Gap-Graded Soils to Internal Erosion: Proposition of a New Experimental Methodology
.” Natural Hazards
83
, no. 1
(August): 365
–388
. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11069-016-2319-836.
Moffat
, R. A.
and Fannin
R. J.
. 2006
. “A Large Permeameter for Study of Internal Stability in Cohesionless Soils
.” Geotechnical Testing Journal
29
, no. 4
(July): 273
–279
. https://doi.org/10.1520/GTJ10002137.
Moffat
, R.
, Fannin
R. J.
, and Garner
S. J.
. 2011
. “Spatial and Temporal Progression of Internal Erosion in Cohesionless Soil
.” Canadian Geotechnical Journal
48
, no. 3
(March): 399
–412
. https://doi.org/10.1139/T10-07138.
Oda
, M.
, Koishikawa
I.
, and Higuchi
T.
. 1978
. “Experimental Study of Anisotropic Shear Strength of Sand by Plane Strain Test
.” Soils and Foundations
18
, no. 1
(March): 25
–38
. https://doi.org/10.3208/sandf1972.18.2539.
Pachideh
, V.
and Mir Mohammad Hosseini
S. M.
. 2019
. “A New Physical Model for Studying Flow Direction and Other Influencing Parameters on the Internal Erosion of Soils
.” Geotechnical Testing Journal
42
, no. 6
(November/December): 1431
–1456
. https://doi.org/10.1520/GTJ2017030140.
Richards
, K. S.
and Reddy
K. R.
. 2007
. “Critical Appraisal of Piping Phenomena in Earth Dams
.” Bulletin of Engineering Geology and the Environment
66
, no. 4
(November): 381
–402
. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10064-007-0095-041.
Richards
, K. S.
and Reddy
K. R.
. 2010
. “True Triaxial Piping Test Apparatus for Evaluation of Piping Potential in Earth Structures
.” Geotechnical Testing Journal
33
, no. 1
: 83
–95
. https://doi.org/10.1520/GTJ10224642.
Salehi Sadaghiani
, M. R.
and Witt
K. J.
. 2011
. “Experimental Identification of Mobile Particles in Suffusible Non Cohesive Soils
.” European Journal of Environmental and Civil Engineering
15
, no. 8
: 1155
–1165
. https://doi.org/10.1080/19648189.2011.971484643.
Shafiee
, A.
2008
. “Permeability of Compacted Granule-Clay Mixtures
.” Engineering Geology
97
, nos. 3–4
(April): 199
–208
. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2008.01.00244.
Skempton
, A. W.
and Brogan
J. M.
. 1994
. “Experiments on Piping in Sandy Gravels
.” Géotechnique
44
, no. 3
(September): 449
–460
. https://doi.org/10.1680/geot.1994.44.3.44945.
Tomlinson
, S. S.
and Vaid
Y. P.
. 2000
. “Seepage Forces and Confining Pressure Effects on Piping Erosion
.” Canadian Geotechnical Journal
37
, no. 1
(February): 1
–13
. https://doi.org/10.1139/t99-11646.
Wan
, C. F.
and Fell
R.
. 2008
. “Assessing the Potential of Internal Instability and Suffusion in Embankment Dams and Their Foundations
.” Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering
134
, no. 3
(March): 401
–407
. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)1090-0241(2008)134:3(401)47.
Wang
, J.-J.
and Qiu
Z.-F.
. 2017
. “Anisotropic Hydraulic Conductivity and Critical Hydraulic Gradient of a Crushed Sandstone-Mudstone Particle Mixture
.” Marine Georesources & Geotechnology
35
, no. 1
: 89
–97
. https://doi.org/10.1080/1064119X.2015.110382548.
Yang
, Z. X.
, Li
X. S.
, and Yang
J.
. 2008
. “Quantifying and Modelling Fabric Anisotropy of Granular Soils
.” Géotechnique
58
, no. 4
(April): 237
–248
. https://doi.org/10.1680/geot.2008.58.4.23749.
Zhang
, L. L.
, Deng
G.
, Chen
R.
, and Luo
Z. Y.
. 2023
a. “Confining Stress Effects on Global and Local Responses of Internal Erosion in Gap-Graded Cohesionless Soils
.” Bulletin of Engineering Geology and the Environment
82
, no. 8
(August): 326. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10064-023-03339-550.
Zhang
, L. L.
, Deng
G.
, Chen
R.
, Zhang
Y. Q.
, and Luo
Z. Y.
. 2023
b. “Experimental Investigation on Evolution Process of Suffusion in Gap-Graded Cohesionless Soil
” (in Chinese). Yantu Gongcheng Xuebao
45
, no. 7
(October): 1412
–1420
. https://doi.org/10.11779/CJGE2022046851.
Zhong
, C.
, Le
V. T.
, Bendahmane
F.
, Marot
D.
, and Yin
Z.-Y.
. 2018
. “Investigation of Spatial Scale Effects on Suffusion Susceptibility
.” Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering
144
, no. 9
(September): 04018067. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)GT.1943-5606.000193552.
Zhou
, C.
and Chen
R.
. 2021
. “Modelling the Water Retention Behaviour of Anisotropic Soils
.” Journal of Hydrology
599
(August): 126361. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2021.12636153.
Zhou
, Z. Q.
, Ranjith
P. G.
, and Li
S. C.
. 2018
. “An Experimental Testing Apparatus for Study of Suffusion of Granular Soils in Geological Structures
.” Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology
78
(August): 222
–230
. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tust.2018.05.00354.
Zhou
, C.
, Yin
J.-H.
, Zhu
J.-G.
, and Cheng
C.-M.
. 2005
. “Elastic Anisotropic Viscoplastic Modeling of the Strain-Rate-Dependent Stress-Strain Behavior of K0-Consolidated Natural Marine Clays in Triaxial Shear Tests
.” International Journal of Geomechanics
5
, no. 3
(September): 218
–232
. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)1532-3641(2005)5:3(218)55.
Zou
, Y.-H.
, Chen
Q.
, and He
C.-R.
. 2013
. “A New Large-Scale Plane-Strain Permeameter for Gravelly Clay Soil under Stresses
.” KSCE Journal of Civil Engineering
17
, no. 4
(May): 681
–690
. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12205-013-0217-0
This content is only available via PDF.
All rights reserved. This material may not be reproduced or copied, in whole or part, in any printed, mechanical, electronic, film, or other distribution and storage media, without the written consent of ASTM International.
You do not currently have access to this content.
