Abstract

A cascade of probabilistic mechanisms is proposed to better understand the 72 ft-lbs mechanical impact in liquid oxygen ignition threshold sensitivity testing of polymeric and polymer matrix composite materials. This model teams the well established and understood mechanisms of Hertzian fracture and kinetic friction. In conjunction they explain the mechanical fracturing of the specimen and the very rapid transformation of the test's mechanical energy into temperature rising heat energy. The model also provides the first explanation for the random probabilistic occurrence or nonoccurrence of ignitions in tested materials.

References

1.
Tack
,
W.
,
McNamara
,
D.
,
Stoltzfus
,
J.
, and
Sircar
,
S.
, “
Aluminum-Lithium Alloys: Mechanical Property and Composition Effects on Liquid Oxygen Compatibility
,”
Flammability and Sensitivity of Materials in Oxygen-Enriched Atmospheres
, Fifth Volume,
ASTM STP 1111
,
J. M.
Stoltzfus
and
K.
McIlroy
, Eds.,
ASTM International
,
West Conshohocken, PA
,
1991
, pp.
216
239
.
2.
Hauser
,
R.
,
Sykes
,
G.
, and
Rumpel
,
W.
, “
Mechanically Initiated Reactions of Organic Materials in Missile Oxidizers
,” TR 61-324, WPAFB,
1961
.
3.
Reed
,
R.
,
Simon
,
N.
,
McColskey
,
J.
,
Berger
,
J.
,
McCowen
,
C.
,
Bransford
,
J.
,
Drexler
,
E.
, and
Walsh
,
R.
, “
Aluminum Alloys for Cryogenic Tanks: Oxygen Compatibility V1
,” AL TR 90 063,
1990
.
4.
Reed
,
R.
,
Simon
,
N.
,
McColskey
,
J.
,
McCowen
,
C.
, and
Drexler
,
E.
, “
Aluminum Alloys for ALS Cryogenic Tanks: Oxygen Compatibility V2
,” AL TR 90 063,
1990
.
5.
deQuay
,
L.
and
Scheuermann
,
P.
, “
Analysis of Oxygen Mechanical Impact Test Apparatuses and Methods
,”
Flammability and Sensitivity of Materials in Oxygen-Enriched Atmospheres
, Fifth Volume,
ASTM STP 1111
,
J. M.
Stoltzfus
and
K.
McIlroy
, Eds.,
ASTM International
,
West Conshohocken, PA
,
1991
, pp.
87
125
.
6.
Reed
,
R.
,
Simon
,
N.
,
Berger
,
J.
, and
McColskey
,
J.
, “
Influence of Specimen Absorbed Energy in LOX Mechanical Impact Tests
,”
Flammability and Sensitivity of Materials in Oxygen-Enriched Atmospheres
, Fifth Volume,
ASTM STP 1111
,
J. M.
Stoltzfus
and
K.
McIlroy
, Eds.,
ASTM International
,
West Conshohocken, PA
,
1991
, pp.
381
398
.
7.
McColskey
,
J.
,
Reed
,
R.
,
Simon
,
N.
, and
Bransford
,
J.
, “
Recommended Changes in ASTM TEST Methods D2512-82 and G86-84 for Oxygen Compatibility Mechanical Impact Tests on Metals
,”
Flammability and Sensitivity of Materials in Oxygen-Enriched Atmospheres
, Fifth Volume,
ASTM STP 1111
,
J. M.
Stoltzfus
and
K.
McIlroy
, Eds.,
ASTM International
,
West Conshohocken, PA
,
1991
, pp.
126
153
.
8.
Simon
,
N.
and
Reed
,
R.
, “
Temperature Increases in Aluminum Alloys Durings Mechanical-Impact Tests for Oxygen Compatibility
,”
Flammability and Sensitivity of Materials in Oxygen-Enriched Atmospheres
, Fifth Volume,
ASTM STP 1111
,
J. M.
Stoltzfus
and
K.
McIlroy
, Eds.,
ASTM International
,
West Conshohocken, PA
,
1991
, pp.
367
380
.
9.
Miller
,
P.
,
Coffey
,
C.
, and
DeVost
,
V.
, “
Heating in Crystalline Solids Due to Rapid Deformation
,”
J. Appl. Phys.
 0021-8979 https://doi.org/10.1063/1.336563, Vol.
59
, No.
3
,
1986
, pp.
913
916
.
10.
Key
,
C.
, “
An Apparatus for Determination of Impact Sensitivity of Materials in Contact With Liquid and Gaseous Oxygen at High Pressures
,”
Materials Research and Standards
,
ASTM International
,
West Conshohocken, PA
, Vol.
11
, No. 6,
1971
, pp. 28–29 and 51–52.
11.
Africano
,
A.
, “
Maximum Rate Theory of Impact Sensitivity
,”
Advances in Cryogenic Engineering Materials
, Vol.
5
,
Plenum
,
New York
,
1960
, pp.
533
544
.
12.
Blackstone
,
W.
and
Ku
,
P.
, “
An Assessment of Impact Test Techniques for Determining the Fire or Explosion Hazards of Materials Exposed to Liquid Oxygen
,”
Materials Research and Standards
,
ASTM International
,
West Conshohocken, PA
, Vol.
11
, No. 6,
1971
, pp. 30–35 and 52.
13.
ASTM Standard G 63-92, “
Guide for Evaluating Nonmetallic Materials for Oxygen Service
,”
Annual Book of ASTM Standards
,
ASTM International
,
West Conshohocken, PA
,
1992
.
14.
Flammability, Odor, Offgassing, and Compatibility Requirements and Test Procedures for Materials in Environments That Support Combustion
,” NASA STD 6001,
1998
.
15.
Safety Standard for Oxygen and Oxygen Systems: Guidelines for Oxygen System Design, Materials Selection, Operations, Storage, and Transportation
,” NASA NSS 1740.15,
1996
.
16.
Austin
,
J.
,
Hust
,
J.
, and
Clark
,
A.
, “
A Survey of Compatibility of Materials With High Pressure Oxygen Service
,” NASA-CR-120221,
1974
.
17.
Werley
,
B.
,
Barthelemy
,
H.
,
Gates
,
R.
,
Slusser
,
J.
,
Wilson
,
K.
, and
Zawierucha
,
R.
, “
A Critical Review of Flammability Data for Aluminum
,“
Flammability and Sensitivity of Materials in Oxygen-Enriched Atmospheres
, Sixth Volume,
ASTM STP 1197
,
D. D.
Janoff
and
J. M.
Stoltzfus
, Eds.,
ASTM International
,
West Conshohocken, PA
,
1993
, pp.
300
345
.
18.
Lockhart
,
B.
,
Hampton
,
M.
, and
Bryan
,
C.
, “
The Oxygen Sensitivity / Compatibility Ranking of Several Materials by Different Test Methods
,”
Flammability and Sensitivity of Materials in Oxygen-Enriched Atmospheres
, Fourth Volume,
ASTM STP 1040
,
J. M.
Stoltzfus
,
F. J.
Benz
, and
J. S
.
Stradling
, Eds.,
ASTM International
,
West Conshohocken, PA
,
1989
, pp.
93
105
.
19.
Schmidt
,
H.
and
Forney
, “
ASRDI Oxygen Technological Survey
,”
Oxygen Systems Engineering Review
, Vol.
9
, NASA SP-3090,
1975
.
20.
Clark
,
A.
and
Hust
,
J.
, “
A Review of the Compatibility of Structural Materials With Oxygen
,”
AIAA J.
 0001-1452, Vol.
12
, No.
4
,
1974
, pp.
441
454
.
21.
Lowrie
,
R.
, “
Oxygen Compatibility of Metals and Alloys
,”
Flammability and Sensitivity of Materials in Oxygen-Enriched Atmospheres
, Sixth Volume,
ASTM STP 1197
,
D. D.
Janoff
and
J. M.
Stoltzfus
, Eds.,
ASTM International
,
West Conshohocken, PA
,
1993
, pp.
3
23
.
22.
Hust
,
J.
and
Clark
,
A.
, “
A Survey of Compatibility of Materials With High Pressure Oxygen Service
,”
Cryogenics
 0011-2275, Vol.
13
,
1973
, pp.
325
336
.
23.
ASTM Standard D 2512-95, “
Test Method for Compatibility of Materials With Liquid Oxygen (Impact Sensitivity Threshold and Pass-Fail Techniques)
,”
Annual Book of ASTM Standards
,
ASTM International
,
West Conshohocken, PA
,
1995
.
24.
ASTM Standard F 371-83, “
Test Method for Compatibility of Materials With Liquid Oxygen (Reaction Intensity Method)
,”
Annual Book of ASTM Standards
,
ASTM International
,
West Conshohocken, PA
,
1994
.
25.
ASTM Standard G 86-98, “
Test Method for Determining Ignition Sensitivity of Materials to Mechanical Impact in Ambient Liquid Oxygen and Pressurized Liquid and Gaseous Oxygen Environments
,”
Annual Book of ASTM Standards
,
ASTM International
,
West Conshohocken, PA
,
1998
.
26.
ASTM Standard D 2540-93, “
Test Method for Drop-Weight Sensitivity of Liquid Monopropellants
,”
Annual Book of ASTM Standards
,
ASTM International
,
West Conshohocken, PA
,
1993
.
27.
Ambient LOX Impact Testing
,” NASA-STD-6001: Test 13A, ED36-OWI-032 Rev A,
1999
.
28.
High Pressure Impact Testing
,” NASA-STD-6001: Test 13B, ED36-OWI-033 Rev A,
1999
.
29.
Srimivasan
,
K.
,
Jackson
,
W.
, and
Hinkley
,
J.
, “
Response of Composite Materials to Low Velocity Impact
,” 36th International SAMPE Symposium,
1991
, pp.
850
862
.
30.
Bransford
,
J.
,
Bryan
,
C.
,
Frye
,
G.
, and
Stohler
,
S.
, “
LOX/GOX Mechanical Impact Tester Assessment
,” NASA TM 74106,
1980
.
31.
Key
,
C.
and
Riehl
,
W.
, “
Compatibility of Materials With Liquid Oxygen
,” NASA-TM X-985,
1964
.
32.
Key
,
C.
, “
Compatibility of Materials With Liquid Oxygen I
,” NASA-TM X-64711,
1972
.
33.
Key
,
C.
, “
Compatibility of Materials With Liquid Oxygen III
,” NASA-TM X-53533,
1966
.
34.
Key
,
C.
, “
Compatibility of Materials With Liquid Oxygen IV
,” NASA-TM X-53773,
1968
.
35.
Lucas
,
W.
and
Riehl
,
W.
, “
An Instrument for Determination of Impact Sensitivity of Materials in Contact With Liquid Oxygen
,”
ASTM Bull
 0365-7205, Vol.
244
,
1960
, pp.
29
34
.
36.
Riehl
,
W.
,
Key
,
C.
, and
Gayle
,
J.
, “
Reactivity of Titanium With Oxygen
,” NASA TR R-180,
1963
.
37.
Materials Selection List for Space Hardware Systems
,” MSFC HDBK 527 Rev F JSC 09604 Rev F,
1988
.
38.
Matrix and Coating Polymers for Composite LOX Containers
,” NASA Tech Briefs MFS-26541, 1990's.
39.
Reed
,
R.
,
McCowan
,
C.
,
McColskey
,
J.
, and
Simon
,
N.
, “
Macro and Microreactions in Mechanical Impact Tests of Aluminum Alloys
,”
Flammability and Sensitivity of Materials in Oxygen-Enriched Atmospheres
, Fifth Volume,
ASTM STP 1111
,
J. M.
Stoltzfus
and
K.
McIlroy
, Eds.,
ASTM International
,
West Conshohocken, PA
,
1991
, pp.
240
259
.
40.
Christianson
,
R.
, “
Oxygen Hazards Analysis of Composite Liquid Oxygen Tanks
,” WSTF-IR-93-0024,
1993
.
41.
Lucas
,
W.
and
Riehl
,
W.
, “
An Instrument for Determination of Impact Sensitivity of Materials in Contact With Liquid Oxygen
,” DSN-TR-2-58, Redstone Arsenal,
1958
.
42.
Moffett
,
G.
,
Pedley
,
M.
,
Schmidt
,
N.
, and
Linley
,
L.
, “
An Evaluation of the Liquid Oxygen Mechanical Impact Test
,”
Flammability and Sensitivity of Materials in Oxygen-Enriched Atmospheres
, Fourth Volume,
ASTM STP 1040
,
J. M.
Stoltzfus
,
F. J.
Benz
, and
J. S.
Stradling
, Eds.,
ASTM International
,
West Conshohocken, PA
,
1989
, pp.
11
22
.
43.
Currie
,
J.
,
Irani
,
R.
, and
Sanders
,
J.
, “
Factors Affecting the Impact Sensitivity of Solid Polymer Materials in Contact With Liquid Oxygen
,”
Flammability and Sensitivity of Materials in Oxygen-Enriched Atmospheres
, Third Volume,
ASTM STP 986
,
D. W.
Schroll
, Ed.,
ASTM International
,
West Conshohocken, PA
,
1988
, pp.
233
247
.
44.
Bryan
,
C.
and
Olsen
,
M.
, “
Procedure for the Selection of Materials for Use in Oxygen Systems at the John F Kennedy Space Center
,”
Flammability and Sensitivity of Materials in Oxygen-Enriched Atmospheres
, Third Volume,
ASTM STP 986
,
D. W.
Schroll
, Ed.,
ASTM International
,
West Conshohocken, PA
,
1988
, pp.
262
267
.
45.
Nguyen
,
B.
and
Pham
,
B.
, “
Assessing LOX Compatibility for Al-Li Alloys
,”
Flammability and Sensitivity of Materials in Oxygen-Enriched Atmospheres
, Fifth Volume,
ASTM STP 1111
,
J. M.
Stoltzfus
and
K.
McIlroy
, Eds.,
ASTM International
,
West Conshohocken, PA
,
1991
, pp.
463
474
.
46.
Bryan
,
C.
, “
NASA Mechanical Impact Testing in High-Pressure Oxygen
,”
Flammability and Sensitivity of Materials in Oxygen-Enriched Atmospheres, ASTM STP 812
,
B. L.
Werley
, Ed.,
ASTM International
,
West Conshohocken, PA
,
1983
, pp.
9
42
.
47.
Jamison
,
H.
, “
Development of a Gaseous Oxygen Impact Testing Method
,”
Materials Research and Standards
,
ASTM International
,
West Conshohocken, PA
, Vol.
11
, No. 6,
1971
, pp.
22
27
.
48.
Beeson
,
H.
,
Hshieh
,
F.
, and
Hirsch
,
D.
, “
Ignitibility of Advanced Composites in Liquid and Gaseous Oxygen
,”
Flammability and Sensitivity of Materials in Oxygen-Enriched Atmospheres
, Eigth Volume,
ASTM STP 1319
,
W. T.
Royals
,
T. C.
Chou
, and
T. A.
Steinberg
, Eds.,
ASTM International
,
West Conshohocken, PA
,
1997
, pp.
421
431
.
49.
Hirsch
,
D.
,
Hshieh
,
F.
,
Beeson
,
H.
, and
Bryan
,
C.
, “
Ignitibility in Air, Gaseous Oxygen, and Oxygen-Enriched Environments of Polymers Used in Breathing - Air Devices
,”
Flammability and Sensitivity of Materials in Oxygen-Enriched Atmospheres
, Eigth Volume,
ASTM STP 1319
,
W. T.
Royals
,
T. C.
Chou
, and
T. A.
Steinberg
, Eds.,
ASTM International
,
West Conshohocken, PA
,
1997
, pp.
359
369
.
50.
Jain
,
A.
,
Gunaji
,
M.
, and
Bryan
,
C.
, “
Evaluation of the Compatibility of Materials Used in Breathing Air Devices
,”
Flammability and Sensitivity of Materials in Oxygen-Enriched Atmospheres
, Seventh Volume,
ASTM STP 1267
,
D. D.
Janoff
,
W. T.
Royals
, and
M. V.
Gunaji
, Eds.,
ASTM International
,
West Conshohocken, PA
,
1995
, pp.
184
191
.
51.
Chou
,
T.
and
Fiedorowicz
,
A.
, “
Oxygen Compatibility of Polymers Including TFE-Teflon, Kel-F 81, Vespel SP-21, Viton A, Viton A-500, Fluorel, Neoprene, EPDM, Buna-N, and Nylon 6,6
,”
Flammability and Sensitivity of Materials in Oxygen-Enriched Atmospheres
: Eighth Volume,
ASTM STP 1319
,
W. T.
Royals
,
T. C.
Chou
, and
T. A.
Steinberg
, Eds.,
ASTM International
,
West Conshohocken, PA
,
1997
, pp.
319
349
.
52.
Vagnard
,
G.
,
Delode
,
G.
, and
Barthelemy
,
H.
, “
Test Methods and Interpretation of Results for Selecting Non-metallic Materials for Oxygen Service
,”
Flammability and Sensitivity of Materials in Oxygen-Enriched Atmospheres
, Fifth Volume,
ASTM STP 1111
,
J. M.
Stoltzfus
and
K.
McIlroy
, Eds.,
ASTM International
,
West Conshohocken, PA
,
1991
, pp.
489
505
.
53.
Gerzeski
,
R.
, “
Improving the D2512 LOX Compatibility of Composites by Using Thermally Conductive Graphite Fibers
,” AFRL-ML-WP-TR-2005—4239,
2005
.
54.
Pippen
,
D.
and
Stradling
,
J.
, “
Techniques for Determination of Flash and Fire Points and Impact Sensitivity of Materials in a Gaseous Oxygen Environment
,”
Materials Research and Standards
,
ASTM International
,
West Conshohocken, PA
, Vol.
11
, No. 6,
1971
, pp. 35–43 and 52–53.
55.
Shelley
,
R.
,
Christianson
,
R.
, and
Stoltzfus
,
J.
, “
Evaluation of Buna N Ignition Hazard in Gaseous Oxygen
,”
Flammability and Sensitivity of Materials in Oxygen-Enriched Atmospheres
, Sixth Volume,
ASTM STP 1197
,
D. D.
Janoff
and
J. M.
Stoltzfus
, Eds.,
ASTM International
,
West Conshohocken, PA
,
1993
, pp.
239
251
.
56.
Shelley
,
R.
,
Wilson
,
D.
, and
Beeson
,
H.
, “
Combustion Characteristics of Polymers as Ignition Promoters
,”
Flammability and Sensitivity of Materials in Oxygen-Enriched Atmospheres
, Sixth Volume,
ASTM STP 1197
,
D. D.
Janoff
and
J. M.
Stoltzfus
, Eds.,
ASTM International
,
West Conshohocken, PA
,
1993
, pp.
223
238
.
57.
Hshieh
,
F.
,
Bryan
,
C.
, and
Pedley
,
M.
, “
Communication: Autoignition Temperature of Carbon Filled Fluoroelastomers at Elevated Oxygen Pressure
,”
Fire Mater.
 0308-0501, Vol.
18
,
1994
, pp.
389
390
.
58.
Glassman
,
I.
,
Mellor
,
A.
,
Sullivan
,
H.
, and
Laurendeau
,
N.
, “
A Review of Metal Ignition and Flame Models
,‘
Princeton University
,
Princeton, NJ
.
59.
Akita
,
K.
, “
Ignition of Polymers and Flame Propagation on Polymer Surfaces
,”
Aspects of Degradation and Stabilization of Polymers
,
Elsevier Scientific
,
New York
,
1978
, Chap. 10, pp.
501
525
.
60.
Kishore
,
K.
,
Nagarajan
,
R.
, and
Mohandas
,
K.
, “
Polymer Ignition—A Review
,”
Polymer Eng. Rev.
 0250-8079, Vol.
2
, No.
3
,
1983
, pp.
257
293
.
61.
Kishore
,
K.
and
Mohandas
,
K.
, “
Polymer Gasification Processes—A Review
,”
Polymer Eng. Rev.
 0250-8079, Vol.
2
, No.
3
,
1983
, pp.
189
210
.
62.
Kishore
,
K.
,
Mohandas
,
K.
, and
Annakutty
,
K.
, “
Is Gasification Rate Controlling Step in Polymer Ignition?
,”
Combust. Sci. Technol
 0010-2202, Vol.
31
,
1983
, pp.
183
194
.
63.
Kamiya
,
Y.
and
Niki
,
E.
, “
Oxidative Degradation.
,”
Aspects of Degradation and Stabilization of Polymers
,
Elsevier Scientific
,
New York
,
1978
, Chap. 3, pp.
79
147
.
64.
Comyns
,
A.
,
Sanchez
,
J.
, and
Myers
,
T.
, “
Peroxides and Peroxide Compounds: Inorganic Peroxides; Organic Peroxides
,”
Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology
, 4th ed.,
John Wiley & Sons
,
New York
,
1996
, Vol.
18
, pp.
202
310
.
65.
Kuo
,
K.
, “
Ignition
,”
Principles of Combustion
,
John Wiley & Sons
,
New York
,
1986
, Chap. 10, pp.
734
790
.
66.
Carvalho
,
M.
and
Cruz-Pinto
,
J.
, “
The Kinetics of Photo-oxidation of Low-density Polyethylene Films
,”
Polymer Engineering and Science
 0032-3888, Vol.
32
, No.
8
, 1992\, pp.
567
572
.
67.
ASTM Standard E 1321-97a, “
Test Method for Determining Material Ignition and Flame Spread Properties
,”
Annual Book of ASTM Standards
,
ASTM International
,
West Conshohocken, PA
,
1997
.
68.
Hopewell
,
J.
,
Hill
,
D.
,
O'Donnell
,
J.
,
Pomery
,
P.
,
McGrath
,
J.
,
Priddy
, ,
D.
 Jr.
, and
Smith
,
C.
, “
The Radiation Chemistry of Poly (arylene ether phosphine oxide)s
,”
Polymer Degradation and Stability
Vol.
45
,
Elsevier Science Limited
,
New York
,
1994
, pp.
293
299
.
69.
Yuen
,
W.
,
Greer
,
D.
,
Lin
,
G.
, and
Bryan
,
C.
, “
Modeling of the Transient Ignition of a Nonmetal/Oxygen System by Heterogeneous Reaction: Effects of Oxygen Pressure
,”
Flammability and Sensitivity of Materials in Oxygen-Enriched Atmospheres
, Third Volume,
ASTM STP 986
,
D. W.
Schroll
, Ed.,
ASTM International
,
West Conshohocken, PA
,
1988
, pp.
191
205
.
70.
Glassman
,
I.
, “
Combustion Fundamentals of Low Volatility Materials in Oxygen-Enriched Atmospheres
,”
Flammability and Sensitivity of Materials in Oxygen-Enriched Atmospheres
, Fifth Volume,
ASTM STP 1111
,
J. M.
Stoltzfus
and
K.
McIlroy
, Eds.,
ASTM International
,
West Conshohocken, PA
,
1991
, pp.
7
25
.
71.
Hirsch
,
D.
,
Bunker
,
R.
, and
Janoff
,
D.
, “
Effects of Oxygen Concentration, Diluents and Pressure on Ignition and Flame-Spread Rates of Nonmetals: A Review Paper
,”
Flammability and Sensitivity of Materials in Oxygen-Enriched Atmospheres
, Fifth Volume,
ASTM STP 1111
,
J. M.
Stoltzfus
and
K.
McIlroy
, Eds.,
ASTM International
,
West Conshohocken, PA
,
1991
, pp.
179
190
.
72.
Tapphorn
,
R.
,
Shelley
,
R.
, and
Benz
,
F.
, “
Test Developments for polymers in Oxygen Enriched Environments
,”
Flammability and Sensitivity of Materials in Oxygen-Enriched Atmospheres
, Fifth Volume,
ASTM STP 1111
,
J. M.
Stoltzfus
and
K.
McIlroy
, Eds.,
ASTM International
,
West Conshohocken, PA
,
1991
, pp.
43
59
.
73.
Bransford
,
J.
, “
Ignition and Combustion Temperatures Determined by Laser Heating
,”
Flammability and Sensitivity of Materials in Oxygen-Enriched Atmospheres
, Second Volume,
ASTM STP 910
,
M. A.
Benning
, Ed.,
ASTM International
,
West Conshohocken, PA
,
1986
, pp.
78
97
.
74.
Kishore
,
K.
and
Sankaralingam
,
S.
, “
Effect of Pressure on Polymer Ignition
,”
J. Fire Sci.
 0734-9041, Vol.
4
,
1986
, pp.
94
99
.
75.
Stuetz
,
D.
,
Diedwardo
,
A.
,
Zitomer
,
F.
, and
Barnes
,
B.
, “
Polymer Combustion
,”
J. Polym. Sci., Polym. Chem. Ed.
 0363-8855, Vol.
13
,
1975
, pp.
585
621
.
76.
Bowden
,
F.
and
Tabor
,
D.
,
Friction, An Introduction to Tribology
,
Robert E. Krieger
,
Malabar FL
,
1982
.
77.
Bowden
,
F.
and
Tabor
,
D.
,
Friction and Lubrication
,
Methuen & Co. LTD.
,
London
,
1967
.
78.
Bowden
,
F.
and
Ridler
,
K.
, “
Physical Properties of Surfaces III—The Surface Temperature of Sliding Metals the Temperature of Lubricated Surfaces
,”
Proc. R. Soc. London, Ser A
 0950-1207, Vol.
154
,
1936
, pp.
640
656
..
79.
Bowden
,
F.
,
Young
,
J.
, and
Rowe
,
G.
, “
Friction of Diamond, Graphite, and Carbon: The Influence of Adsorbed Films
,”
Proc. R. Soc. London, Ser A
 0950-1207, Vol.
212
,
1952
, pp.
485
488
.
80.
Bowden
,
F.
, “
The Mechanism of Friction
,”
Proc. R. Soc. London, Ser A
 0950-1207, Vol.
212
,
1952
, pp.
440
449
.
81.
Burwell
,
J.
and
Strang
,
C.
, “
Metallic Wear
,”
Proc. R. Soc. London, Ser A
 0950-1207, Vol.
212
,
1952
, pp.
470
477
.
82.
Bowden
,
F.
and
Thomas
,
P.
, “
The Surface Temperature of Sliding Solids
,”
Proc. R. Soc. London, Ser A
 0950-1207, Vol.
223
, No.
1152
,
1954
, pp.
29
40
.
83.
Pascoe
,
M.
and
Tabor
,
D.
, “
The Friction and Deformation of Polymers
,”
Proc. R. Soc. London, Ser A
 0950-1207, Vol.
235
,
1956
, pp.
210
224
.
84.
Archard
,
J.
, “
Elastic Deformation and the Laws of Friction
,”
Proc. R. Soc. London, Ser A
 0950-1207, Vol.
243
, No.
1233
,
1957
, pp.
190
205
.
85.
Greenwood
,
J.
and
Williamson
,
J.
, “
Contact of Nominally Flat Surfaces
,”
Proc. R. Soc. London, Ser A
 0950-1207, Vol.
295
, No.
1442
,
1996
, pp.
300
319
.
86.
Pooley
,
C.
and
Tabor
,
D.
, “
Friction and Molecular Structure: The Behaviour of Some Thermoplastics
,”
Proc. R. Soc. London, Ser A
 0950-1207, Vol.
329
, No.
1578
,
1972
, pp.
251
274
.
87.
Barber
,
J.
, “
The Conduction of HeatFrom Sliding Solids
,”
Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer
 0017-9310 https://doi.org/10.1016/0017-9310(70)90131-6, Vol.
13
,
1970
, pp.
857
868
.
88.
Cooper
,
M.
,
Mikic
,
B.
, and
Yovanovich
,
M.
, “
Thermal Contact Conductance
,”
Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer
 0017-9310 https://doi.org/10.1016/0017-9310(69)90011-8, Vol.
12
,
1969
, pp.
279
300
.
89.
Blok
,
H.
, “
Theoretical Study of Temperature Rise at Surfaces of Actual Contact Under Oiliness Lubricating Conditions
,”
Proceedings of the General Discussion on Lubrication and Lubricants
, Vol.
2
,
1937
, pp.
222
235
.
90.
Bowden
,
F.
, “
The Friction of Sliding Metals
,”
Proceedings of the General Discussion on Lubrication and Lubricants
, Vol.
2
,
1937
, pp.
236
240
.
91.
Adam
,
N.
, “
Molecular Forces in Friction and Boundary Lubrication
,”
Proceedings of the General Discussion on Lubrication and Lubricants
, Vol.
2
,
1937
, pp.
197
201
.
92.
Archard
,
J.
, “
The Temperature of Rubbing Surfaces
,”
Wear
 0043-1648 https://doi.org/10.1016/0043-1648(59)90159-0, Vol.
2
, 1958/1959, pp.
438
455
.
93.
Heighway
,
R.
and
Taylor
,
D.
, “
Transient Temperature Rises During the Rubbing of Metals on Glass
,”
Wear
 0043-1648, Vol.
9
, No.
4
,
1966
, pp.
310
319
.
94.
Moore
,
D.
and
Geyer
,
W.
, “
A Review of Adhesion Theories for Elastomers
,”
Wear
 0043-1648, Vol.
22
, No.
2
,
1972
, pp.
113
141
.
95.
Quin
,
T.
and
Winer
,
W.
, “
The Thermal Aspects of Oxidational Wear
,”
Wear
 0043-1648 https://doi.org/10.1016/0043-1648(85)90092-4, Vol.
102
,
1985
, pp.
67
80
.
96.
Bhawani
,
S.
,
Tripathy
,
T.
, and
Furey
,
M.
, “
Tribological Behavior of Unidirectional Graphite-Epoxy and Carbon-PEEK Composites
,”
Wear
 0043-1648, Vol.
162–164
,
1993
, pp.
385
396
.
97.
Santner
,
E.
and
Czichos
,
H.
, “
Tribology of polymers
,”
Tribol. Int.
 0301-679X https://doi.org/10.1016/0301-679X(89)90170-9, Vol.
22
, No.
2
,
1989
, pp.
103
109
.
98.
Archard
,
J.
, “
Contact and Rubbing of Flat Surfaces
,”
J. Appl. Phys.
 0021-8979 https://doi.org/10.1063/1.1721448, Vol.
24
,
1954
, pp.
981
988
.
99.
Roselman
,
I.
and
Tabor
,
D.
, “
The Friction of Carbon Fibres
,”
J. Phys. D
 0022-3727 https://doi.org/10.1088/0022-3727/9/17/012, Vol.
9
,
1976
, pp.
2517
2532
.
100.
Tobler
,
R.
, “
A Review of Antifriction Materials and Design for Cryogenic Environments
,”
Advances in Cryogenic Engineering Materials
, Vol.
26
,
Plenum
,
New York
,
1980
, pp.
66
77
.
101.
Iwabuchi
,
A.
,
Honda
,
T.
, and
Tani
,
J.
, “
Tribological Properties at Temperatures of 293, 77, and 4 K in Fretting
,”
Cryogenics
 0011-2275, Vol.
29
, No.
2
,
1989
, pp.
124
131
.
102.
Michael
,
P.
,
Aized
,
D.
,
Rabinowicz
,
E.
, and
Iwasa
,
Y.
, “
Mechanical Properties and Static Friction Behaviour of Epoxy Mixes at Room Temperature and at 77 K
,”
Cryogenics
 0011-2275, Vol.
30
,
1990
, pp.
775
786
.
103.
Tian
,
X.
and
Kennedy
,
F.
, Jr.
, “
Contact Surface Temperature Models for Finite Bodies in Dry and Boundary Lubricated Sliding
,”
J. Tribol
 0742-4787, Vol.
115
,
1993
, pp.
411
418
.
104.
Tian
,
X.
and
Kennedy
,
F.
, Jr.
, “
Maximum and Average Flash Temperatures in Sliding Contacts
,”
J. Tribol
 0742-4787, Vol.
116
,
1994
, pp.
167
174
.
105.
Cowan
,
R.
and
Winer
,
W.
, “
Frictional Heating Calculations
,”
ASM Handbook: Friction, Lubrication, and Wear Technology
, Vol.
18
,
Chap. Solid Friction
,
1992
, pp.
39
44
.
106.
Shim
,
H.
,
Kwon
,
O.
, and
Youn
,
J.
, “
Effects of Structure and Humidiy on Friction and Wear Properties of Carbon Fiber Reinforced Epoxy Composites
,”
Conference Proceedings, in Search of Excellence Annual Technical Conference, ANTEC 91
, pp.
1997
1999
.
107.
Lincoln
,
B.
, “
Frictional and Elastic Properties of High Polymeric Materials.
,”
Br. J. Appl. Phys.
 0508-3443, Vol.
3
,
1952
, pp.
260
263
.
108.
Howell
,
H.
and
Mazur
,
J.
, “
Amonton's Law and Fibre Friction
,”
J. Text. Inst.
 0040-5000, Vol.
44
,
1953
, pp.
T59
T69
.
109.
King
,
R.
and
Tabor
,
D.
, “
The Effect of Temperature on the Mechanical Properties and the Friction of Plastics
,”
Proc. Phys. Soc. London, Sect B
 0370-1301 https://doi.org/10.1088/0370-1301/66/9/302, Vol.
66
,
1953
, pp.
728
736
.
110.
Shooter
,
K.
and
Tabor
,
D.
, “
The Frictional Properties of Plastics
,”
Proc. Phys. Soc. London, Sect. B
 0370-1301 https://doi.org/10.1088/0370-1301/65/9/302, Vol.
65
,
1952
, pp.
661
671
.
111.
Pascoe
,
M.
and
Tabor
,
D.
, “
Friction of Nylon as a Function of Load and Surface Curvature
,”
Research Correspondence
(a Supplement issued with “
Research: A Journal of Science and Its Applications
), Vol.
8
, No.
4
,
1955
, pp.
S15
S17
.
112.
Gecim
,
B.
and
Winer
,
W.
, “
Transient Temperatures in the Vicinity of an Asperity Contact
,”
Journal of Tribology Technology
, Vol.
107
, No.
3
,
1985
, pp.
333
342
.
113.
Quinn
,
T.
and
Winer
,
W.
, “
An Experimental Study of the “Hot Spots” Occurring During the Oxidational Wear of Tool Steel on Sapphire
,”
Journal of Tribology Technology
, Vol.
109
, No.
2
,
1987
, pp.
315
320
.
114.
Argon
,
A.
,
Backer
,
S.
,
McClintock
,
F.
,
Reichenbach
,
G.
,
Orowan
,
E.
,
Shaw
,
M.
, and
Rabinowicz
,
E.
, “
Friction and Wear
,”
Mechanical Behavior of Materials
,
F.
McClintock
and
A.
Argon
, Eds.,
Addison-Wesley
, Reading,
MA
,
1966
, Chap. 20, pp.
657
673
.
115.
Lawn
,
B.
, “
Indentation Fracture
,”
Fracture of Brittle Solids
, 2nd ed.,
Cambridge University Press
,
Cambridge
,
1993
, Chap. 8, pp.
249
306
.
116.
Lawn
,
B.
, “
Crack initiation: Flaws
,”
Fracture of Brittle Solids
, 2nd ed.,
Cambridge University Press
,
Cambridge
,
1993
, Chap. 9, pp.
307
334
.
117.
Lawn
,
B.
and
Swain
,
M.
, “
Microfracture Beneath Point Indentations in Brittle Solids
,”
J. Mater Sci.
 0022-2461 https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00541038, Vol.
10
, No.
1
,
1975
, pp.
113
122
.
118.
Lawn
,
B.
and
Wilshaw
,
R.
, “
Review Indentation Fracture: Principles and Applications.
,”
J. Mater Sci.
 0022-2461 https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00823224, Vol.
10
, No.
6
,
1975
, pp.
1049
1081
.
119.
Lawn
,
B.
,
Wiederhorn
,
S.
, and
Roberts
,
D.
, “
Effect of Sliding Friction Forces on the Strength of Brittle Materials
,”
J. Mater. Sci.
 0022-2461, Vol.
19
,
1984
, pp.
2561
2569
.
120.
Hamilton
,
G.
and
Goodman
,
L.
, “
The Stress Field Created by a Circular Sliding Contact
,”
J. Appl. Mech.
 0021-8936, Vol.
33
, No.
2
, Series E,
1966
, pp.
371
376
.
121.
Lawn
,
B.
, “
Hertzian Fracture in Single Crystals with the Diamond Structure
,”
J. Appl. Phys.
 0021-8979 https://doi.org/10.1063/1.1655847, Vol.
39
, No.
10
,
1968
, pp.
4828
4836
.
122.
Langitan
,
F.
and
Lawn
,
B.
, “
Hertzian Fracture Experiments on Abraded Glass Surfaces as Definitive Evidence for an Energy Balance Explanation of Aurbach's Law
,”
J. Appl. Phys.
 0021-8979 https://doi.org/10.1063/1.1657136, Vol.
40
, No.
10
,
1969
, pp.
4009
4017
.
123.
Wilshaw
,
T.
, “
The Hertzian Fracture Test
,”
J. Phys. D
 0022-3727 https://doi.org/10.1088/0022-3727/4/10/316, Vol.
4
,
1971
, pp.
1567
1581
.
124.
Frank
,
F.
and
Lawn
,
B.
, “
On the Theory of Hertzian Fracture
,”
Proc. R. Soc. London, Ser. A
 0950-1207, Vol.
299
, No.
1458
,
1967
, pp.
291
306
.
125.
Lawn
,
B.
, “
Partial Cone Crack Formation in a Brittle Material Loaded with a Sliding Spherical Indenter
,”
Proc. R. Soc. London, Ser A
 0950-1207, Vol.
299
, No.
1458
,
1967
, pp.
307
316
.
126.
Lawn
,
B.
,
Wilshaw
,
T,
and
Hartley
,
E.
, “
A computer Simulation Study of Hertzian Cone Crack Growth
,”
Int. J. Fract.
 0376-9429 https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00955075, Vol.
10
, No.
1
,
1974
, pp.
1
16
.
127.
Cotterell
,
B.
,
Kamminga
,
J.
, and
Dickson
,
F.
, “
The Essential Mechanics of Conchoidal Flaking
,”
Int. J. Fract.
 0376-9429, Vol.
29
, No.
4
,
1985
, pp.
205
221
.
128.
Evans
,
A.
, “
Strength Degradation by Projectile Impacts
,”
J. Am. Ceram. Soc.
 0002-7820 https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1151-2916.1973.tb12710.x, Vol.
56
, No.
8
,
1973
, pp.
405
409
.
129.
Tillett
,
J.
, “
Fracture of Glass by Spherical Indenters
,”
Proc. Phys. Soc. London, Sect. B
 0370-1301 https://doi.org/10.1088/0370-1301/69/1/306, Vol.
69
, No.
433B
, Part 1,
1956
, pp.
47
54
.
130.
Roesler
,
F.
, “
Indentation Hardness of Glass as an Energy Sealing Law
,”
Proc. Phys. Soc. London, Sect. B
 0370-1301, Vol.
69
, No.
433B
, Part 1,
1956
, pp.
55
60
.
131.
Roesler
,
F.
, “
Brittle Fractures Near Equilibrium
,”
Proc. Phys. Soc. London, Sect B
 0370-1301, Vol.
69
, No.
433B
, Part 1,
1956
, pp.
981
992
.
132.
Personal discussions with Dr. Robert Crane (Chief Scientist AFRL/MLB), Summer and Fall 2004.
133.
Beek
,
J.
and
Lawn
,
B.
, “
An Environmental Chamber for Hertzian Fracture Testing
,”
J. Phys. E
 0022-3735 https://doi.org/10.1088/0022-3735/5/7/031, Vol.
5
, No.
7
,
1972
, pp.
710
712
.
134.
Langitan
,
F.
and
Lawn
,
B.
, “
Effect of a Reactive Environment on the Hertzian Strength of Brittle Solids
,”
J. Appl. Phys.
 0021-8979 https://doi.org/10.1063/1.1659425, Vol.
41
, No.
8
,
1970
, pp.
3357
3365
.
135.
Swain
,
M.
and
Lawn
,
B.
, “
A Microprobe Technique for Measuring Slow Crack Velocities in Brittle Solids
,”
Int. J. Fract.
 0376-9429, Vol.
9
, No.
4
,
1973
, pp.
481
483
.
136.
Swain
,
M.
,
Williams
,
J.
,
Lawn
,
B.
, and
Beek
,
J.
, “
A Comparative Study of the Fracture of Various Silica Modifications Using the Hertzian Test
,”
J. Mater Sci.
 0022-2461 https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00632767, Vol.
8
, No.
8
,
1973
, pp.
1153
1164
.
137.
Benbow
,
J.
, “
Cone Cracks in Fused Silica
,”
Proc. Phys. Soc. London
 0370-1328, Vol.
75
, No.
5
,
1960
, pp.
697
699
.
138.
Mikosza
,
A.
and
Lawn
,
B.
, “
Section and Etch Study of Hertzian Fracture Mechanics
,”
J. Appl. Phys.
 0021-8979 https://doi.org/10.1063/1.1659977, Vol.
42
, No.
13
,
1971
, pp.
5540
5545
.
139.
Gilroy
,
D.
and
Hirst
,
W.
, “
Brittle Fracture of Glass Under Normal and Sliding Loads
,”
J. Phys. D
 0022-3727, Vol.
2
, No.
2
,
1969
, pp.
1784
1787
.
140.
Powell
,
B.
and
Tabor
,
D.
, “
The Fracture of Titanium Carbide Under Static and Sliding Contact
,”
J. Phys. D
 0022-3727 https://doi.org/10.1088/0022-3727/3/5/320, Vol.
3
, No.
5
,
1970
, pp.
783
788
.
141.
Argon
,
A.
,
Hori
,
Y.
, and
Orowan
,
E.
, “
Indentation Strength of Glass
,”
J. Am. Ceram. Soc.
 0002-7820 https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1151-2916.1960.tb13646.x, Vol.
43
, No.
2
,
1960
, pp.
86
96
.
142.
Nadeau
,
J.
, “
Hertzian Fracture of Vitreous Carbon
,”
J. Am. Ceram. Soc.
 0002-7820 https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1151-2916.1973.tb12525.x, Vol.
56
, No.
9
,
1973
, pp.
467
471
.
143.
Keshavan
,
M.
, “
Hertzian Fracture of Pyrex Glass Under Quasi-Static Loading Conditions
,” Dissertation,
Department of Metallurgical Engineering and Materials Science, University of Kentucky
, Lexington, Ky,
1978
.
144.
Alderson
,
K.
and
Evans
,
K.
, “
Low Velocity Transverse Impact of Filament-Wound Pipes: Part 1. Damage Due to Static and Impact Loads
,”
Compos. Struct.
 0263-8223, Vol.
20
,
1992
, pp.
37
45
.
145.
Choi
,
H.
,
Downs
,
R.
, and
Chang
,
F.
, “
A New Approach Toward Understanding Damage Mechanisms and Mechanics of Laminated Composites Due to Low-Velocity Impact: Part I—Experiments
,”
J. Compos. Mater.
 0021-9983, Vol.
25
, No.
8
,
1991
, pp.
992
1011
.
146.
Choi
,
H.
,
Wu
,
H.
, and
Chang
,
F.
, “
A New Approach Toward Understanding Damage Mechanisms and Mechanics of Laminated Composites Due to Low-Velocity Impact: Part II—Analysis
,”
J. Compos. Mater.
 0021-9983, Vol.
25
, No.
8
,
1991
, pp.
1012
1038
.
147.
Lagace
,
P.
,
Williamson
,
J.
,
Tsang
,
P.
,
Wolf
,
E.
, and
Thomas
,
S.
, “
The Use of Force as a (Impact) Damage Resistance Parameter
,”
Proceedings of the American Society for Composites, Seventh Technical Conference
,
1992
,
Pennsylvania State University
,
University Park, PA
, pp.
991
1000
.
148.
Ong
,
C.
,
Hong
,
T.
, and
Huang
,
J.
, “
Studies of Impacted Composite Laminates
,”
Proceedings of 38th International SAMPE Symposium
, Vol.
138
Book 1,
1993
,
Anaheim, CA
, pp.
978
987
.
149.
Salpekar
,
S.
, “
Analysis of Delamination in Cross-Ply Laminates Initiating From Impact Induced Matrix Cracking
,”
J. Compos. Technol. Res.
 0884-6804, Vol.
15
, No.
2
,
1993
, pp.
88
94
.
150.
Sierakowski
,
R.
and
Newaz
,
G.
, “
Key Elements in Damage Tolerance Concept for Polymeric Composites.
,”
Proceedings of the American Society for Composites, Eighth Technical Conference
,
1993
,
Ohio Aerospace Institute
,
Celveland, OH
, pp.
640
649
.
151.
Clark
,
G.
, “
Modelling of Impact Damage in Composite Laminates
,”
Composites
 0010-4361, Vol.
20
, No.
3
,
1989
, pp.
209
214
.
152.
Gosse
,
J.
and
Mori
,
P.
, “
Impact Damage Characterization of Graphite/Epoxy Laminates
,”
Proceedings of The American Society For Composites, Third Technical Conference
,
1998
,
University of Washington
,
Seattle, WA
, pp.
344
353
.
153.
Hertzberg
,
P.
,
Smith
,
B.
, and
Miller
,
A.
, “
Effect of Matrix Resin on the Impact Fracture Characteristics of Graphite-Epoxy Laminates
,” NASA CR 165784,
1982
.
154.
Kwon
,
Y.
and
Sankar
,
B.
, “
Indentation—Flexure and Low—Velocity Impact Damage in Graphite Epoxy Laminates
,”
J. Compos. Technol. Res.
 0884-6804, Vol.
15
, No.
2
,
1993
, pp.
101
111
.
155.
Nettles
,
A.
and
Douglas
,
M.
, “
A Comparison of Quasi-Static Indentation to Low-Velocity Impact
,” NASA TP-2000-210481,
2000
.
156.
Nettles
,
A.
and
Hodge
,
A.
, “
The Impact Response of Carbon/Epoxy Laminates
,” NASA TM-97-206317,
1997
.
157.
Pinnell
,
M.
and
Sjoblom
,
P.
, “
Low-Velocity Impact Testing of Thermoplastic and Thermoset Matrix Composite Materials
,” WRDC-TR-90-4078,
1
46
,
1990
.
158.
Aoki
,
R.
, “
Behaviour of Idealized Discontinuities and Impact Damages in CFRP Under Fatigue Loading
,”
Characterization, Analysis and Significance of Defects in Composite Materials, AGARD Conference Proceedings
No.
355
,
Neuilly Sur Seine France
, pp.
11-1
11-10
,
1983
.
159.
Srinivasan
,
K.
,
Jackson
,
W.
,
Smith
,
B.
, and
Hinkley
,
J.
, “
Characterization of Damage Modes In Impacted Thermoset and Thermoplastic Composites.
,”
J. Reinf Plast. Compos.
 0731-6844, Vol.
11
, No.
10
,
1992
, pp.
1111
1126
.
160.
Masters
,
J.
,
Courter
,
J.
, and
Evans
,
R.
, “
Impact Fracture and Failure Suppression Using Interleafed Composites
,”
Proceedings of 31st International SAMPE Symposium
, Vol.
31
,
1986
,
Chicago, IL
, pp.
844
858
.
161.
Rice
,
B.
and
Kim
,
R.
, “
Fracture Characterization of Toughened Bismaleimide/Graphite Composites
,”
Proceedings of 35th International SAMPE Symposium
, Vol.
35
,
1990
,
Anaheim, CA
, pp.
455
467
.
162.
Williams
,
J.
,
Anderson
,
M.
,
Rhodes
,
M.
,
Starnes
,
J.
, and
Stroud
,
W.
, “
Recent Developments In The Design, Testing and Impact-Damage Tolerance of Stiffened Composite Panels
,” NASA TM 80077,
1979
.
163.
Sjoblom
,
P.
,
Hartness
,
T.
, and
Cordell
,
T.
, “
On Low-Velocity Impact Testing of Composite Materi- als
,”
J. Compos. Mater.
 0021-9983, Vol.
22
, No.
1
,
1998
, pp.
30
52
.
164.
Buynak
,
C.
,
Moran
,
T.
, and
Donaldson
,
S.
, “
Characterization of Impact Damage in Composites
,”
SAMPE J.
 0091-1062, Vol.
24
, No.
2
,
1988
, pp.
35
39
.
165.
Byers
,
B.
, “
Behavior of Damaged Graphite/Epoxy Laminates Under Compression Loading
,” NASA CR-159293,
1980
.
166.
Cordell
,
T.
and
Sjoblom
,
P.
, “
Low Velocity Impact Testing of Composites
,”
Proceedings of The American Society For Composites, First Technical Conference
,
1986
, pp.
297
312
.
167.
Feraboli
,
P.
,
Ireland
,
D.
, and
Kedward
,
K.
, “
On The Role of Force, Energy and Stiffness In Low Velocity Impact Events.
,”
Proceedings of The American Society For Composites, Eighteenth Technical Conference
,
2003
,
University of Florida
,
Gainesville, FL
.
168.
Friedrich
,
L.
and
Preston
,
J.
, “
Impact Resistance of Fiber Composite Blades Used in Aircraft Turbine Engines
,” NASA CR-134502,
1973
.
169.
Garcia
,
R.
and
Rhodes
,
D.
, “
Effects of Low-Velocity Impact on Gr/Pi Compression Laminates.
,” NASA CP 2079,
239
248
,
1979
.
170.
Joshi
,
S.
and
Sun
,
C.
, “
Impact Induced Fracture in a Laminated Composite
,”
J. Compos. Mater.
 0021-9983, Vol.
19
,
1985
, pp.
51
66
.
171.
Kwon
,
Y.
and
Sankar
,
B.
, “
Indentation Damage in Graphite / Epoxy Laminates
,”
Proceedings of the American Society for Composites, Sixth Technical Conference
,
1991
,
Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute
,
Albany, NY
, pp.
483
492
.
172.
Lee
,
W.
, “
Damage Assessment in Graphite Fiber/Polymer Composites Using Acoustic Emission and Ultrasonics Techniques
,”
Proceedings of The American Society For Composites, Fifth Technical Conference
,
1990
,
Michigan State University
,
East Lansing, MI
, pp.
955
967
.
173.
Starnes
,
J.
,
Rhodes
,
M.
, and
Williams
,
J.
, “
The Effect of Impact Damage and Circular Holes on The Compressive Strength of A Graphite Epoxy Laminate
,” NASA TM 78796,
1978
.
174.
Morita
,
H.
,
Hamamoto
,
A.
,
Adachi
,
T.
,
Nishimori
,
K.
, and
Matsumoto
,
H.
, “
Influence of Impact Velocity and Lay-Up Parameter on Impact Damage Resistance of CF/PEEK Laminates
,”
36th AIAA/ASME/ASCE/AHS/ASC Structures, Structural Dynamics, and Materials Conference and AIAA/ASME Adaptive Structures Forum, Part 2
, AIAA-95-1284-CP,
1995
,
New Orleans, LA
, pp.
1093
1100
.
175.
Preston
,
J.
and
Cook
,
T.
, “
Impact Response of Graphite Epoxy Flat Laminates Using Projectiles That Simulate Aircraft Engine Encounters
,”
Foreign Object Impact Damage to Composites, STP 568
,
ASTM International
,
West Conshohocken, PA
,
1975
, pp.
49
71
.
176.
Rhodes
,
M.
,
Williams
,
J.
, and
Starnes
,
J.
, “
Low-Velocity Impact Damage in Graphite Fiber Reinforced Epoxy Laminates
,”
34th Annual Conference, Reinforced Plastics/Composite Institute
,
Society of The Plastics Industry, Inc.
,
San Diego, CA
,
1979
.
177.
Williams
,
J.
, and
Rhodes
,
M.
, “
The Effect of Resin on The Impact Damage Tolerance of Graphite Epoxy Laminates
,” NASA TM 83213,
1981
.
178.
Bowden
,
F.
and
Lebin
,
L.
, “
The Nature of Sliding and the Analysis of Friction
,”
Proc. R. Soc. London, Ser A
 0950-1207, Vol.
167
,
1939
, pp.
371
391
.
179.
Bowden
,
F.
and
Young
,
J.
, “
Friction of Diamond, Graphite, and Carbon and the Influence of Surface Films
,”
Proc. R. Soc. London, Ser A
 0950-1207, Vol.
208
,
1951
, pp.
444
455
.
180.
Shooter
,
K.
, “
Frictional Properties of Plastics
,”
Proc. R. Soc. London, Ser A
 0950-1207, Vol.
212
,
1952
, pp.
488
491
.
181.
King
,
R.
and
Tabor
,
D.
, “
The Strength Properties and Frictional Behaviour of Brittle Solids
,”
Proc. R. Soc. London, Ser A
 0950-1207, Vol.
223
,
1954
, pp.
225
238
.
182.
Hirst
,
W.
and
Lancaster
,
J.
, “
The Influence of Oxide and Lubricant Films on the Friction and Surface Damage of Metals
,”
Proc. R. Soc. London, Ser A
 0950-1207, Vol.
223
,
1954
, pp.
324
338
.
183.
Bowden
,
F.
and
Persson
,
P.
, “
Deformation, Heating and Melting of Solids in High-speed Friction
,”
Proc. R. Soc. London, Ser A
 0950-1207, Vol.
260
, No.
1303
,
1961
, pp.
433
458
.
184.
Grosch
,
K.
, “
The Relation Between the Friction and Visco-elastic Properties of Rubber
,”
Proc. R. Soc. London, Ser A
 0950-1207, Vol.
274
, No.
1356
,
1963
, pp.
21
39
.
185.
Jaeger
,
J.
, “
Moving Sources of Heat and the Temperature at Sliding Contacts
,”
J. Proc. R. Soc. N. S. W.
 0035-9173, Vol.
76
, No.
28
,
1942
, pp.
203
224
.
186.
Vick
,
B.
,
Furey
,
M.
, and
Foo
,
S.
, “
Boundary Element Thermal Analysis of Sliding Contact
,”
Numer. Heat Transfer, Part A
 1040-7782, Vol.
20
,
1991
, pp.
19
40
.
187.
Furey
,
M.
,
Vick
,
B.
,
Foo
,
S.
, and
Weick
,
B.
, “
A Theoretical and Experimental Study of Surface Temperatures Generated During Fretting
,”
Proceedings Japan International Tribology Conference
,
Nagoya
, Vol.
II
,
1990
, pp.
809
814
.
188.
Blok
,
H.
, “
Measurement of Temperature Flashes on Gear Teeth Under Extreme Pressure Conditions
,” Proceedings of the General Discussion on Lubrication and Lubricants, Vol.
2
,
1937
, pp.
14
20
.
189.
Blok
,
H.
, “
The Flash Temperature Concept
,”
Wear
 0043-1648 https://doi.org/10.1016/0043-1648(63)90283-7, Vol.
6
,
1963
, pp.
483
494
.
190.
McLaren
,
K.
and
Tabor
,
D.
, “
The Friction and Deformation Properties of Irradiated Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE)
,”
Wear
 0043-1648, Vol.
8
, No.
1
,
1965
, pp.
3
7
.
191.
McLaren
,
K.
and
Tabor
,
D.
, “
Friction of Polymers at Engineering Speeds: Influence of Speed, Temperature and Lubricants
,”
Wear
 0043-1648, Vol.
8
, No.
1
,
1965
, pp.
79
83
.
192.
Eliezer
,
Z.
,
Schulz
,
C.
, and
Barlow
,
J.
, “
Friction and Wear Properties of an Epoxy-Steel System
,”
Wear
 0043-1648, Vol.
46
, No.
2
,
1978
, pp.
397
403
.
193.
Hanmin
,
Z.
,
Guoren
,
H.
, and
Guicheng
,
Y.
, “
Friction and Wear of Poly(phenylene sulphide) and its carbon fibre composites: I Unlubricated
,”
Wear
 0043-1648, Vol.
116
, No.
1
,
1987
, pp.
59
68
.
194.
Bassani
,
R.
,
Levita
,
G.
,
Meozzi
,
M.
, and
Palla
,
G.
, “
Friction and Wear of Epoxy Resin on Inox Steel: Remarks on the Influence of Velocity, Load and Induced Thermal State
,”
Wear
 0043-1648, Vol.
247
, No.
2
,
2001
, pp.
125
132
.
195.
Blau
,
P.
and
Martin
,
R.
, “
Friction and Wear of Carbon-Graphite Materials Against Metal and Ceramic Counterfaces
,”
Tribol. Int.
 0301-679X, Vol.
27
, No.
6
,
1994
, pp.
413
422
.
196.
Briscoe
,
B.
, “
Wear of Polymers: An Essay on Fundamental Aspects
,”
Tribol. Int.
 0301-679X, Vol.
14
, No.
4
,
1981
, pp.
231
243
.
197.
Tewari
,
U.
,
Sharma
,
S.
, and
Vasudevan
,
P.
, “
Friction and Wear Studies of a Bismaleimide
,”
Tribol. Int.
 0301-679X, Vol.
21
, No.
1
,
1988
, pp.
27
30
.
198.
Savage
,
R.
, “
Graphite Lubrication
,”
J. Appl. Phys.
 0021-8979 https://doi.org/10.1063/1.1697867, Vol.
19
, No.
1
,
1948
, pp.
1
10
.
199.
Bowers
,
R.
, “
Coefficient of Friction of High Polymers as a Function of Pressure
,”
J. Appl. Phys.
 0021-8979 https://doi.org/10.1063/1.1659881, Vol.
42
, No.
12
,
1971
, pp.
4961
4970
.
200.
Stone
,
E.
and
Young
,
W.
, “
Coefficient of Friction Measurements of Fiberglass/Epoxy at Cryogenic Temperatures
,”
Advances in Cryogenic Engineering Materials
,
Plenum
,
New York
,
1980
, Vol.
26
, pp.
315
318
.
201.
Wisander
,
D.
and
Johnson
,
R.
, “
Wear and Friction of Impregnated Carbon Seal Materials in Liquid Nitrogen and Hydrogen
,”
Advances in Cryogenic Engineering Materials
,
Plenum
,
New York
,
1961
, Vol.
6
, pp.
210
218
.
202.
Wisander
,
D.
,
Hady
,
W.
, and
Johnson
,
R.
, “
Friction Studies of Various Materials in Liquid Nitrogen
,”
Advances in Cryogenic Engineering Materials
,
Plenum
,
New York
,
1960
, Vol.
3
, pp.
390
406
.
203.
Michael
,
P.
,
Rabinowicz
,
E.
, and
Iwasa
,
Y.
, “
Friction and Wear of Polymeric Materials at 293, 77 and 4.2 K
,”
Cryogenics
 0011-2275, Vol.
31
, No.
8
,
1991
, pp.
695
704
.
204.
Jianjun
,
Q.
,
Yunxia
,
L.
,
Zhiqian
,
Z.
,
Yulin
,
Q.
, and
Xiaoquang
,
L.
, “
Study of Sliding Friction and Wear Properties of Bismaleimide and Its Composite Against AL
,”
Proceedings, Eleventh International Conference on Composite Materials
,
Woodhead
,
1997
, pp.
856
865
.
205.
Lancaster
,
J.
, “
Transitions in the Friction and Wear of Carbons and Graphites Sliding Against Themselves
,”
ASLE Trans.
 0569-8197, Vol.
18
, No.
3
,
1975
, pp.
187
200
.
206.
Tanaka
,
K.
and
Yamada
,
Y.
, “
Effect of Temperature on the Friction and Wear of Some Heat—Resistant Polymers
,”
Polymer Wear and Its Control
,
ACS
,
1985
, pp.
103
128
.
207.
Shooter
,
K.
and
Thomas
,
P.
, “
Frictional Properties of Some Plastics
,”
Research, A Journal of Science and Its Application
, Vol.
2
, No.
11
,
1949
, pp.
533
535
.
208.
Devine
,
M.
and
Kroll
,
A.
, “
Aromatic Polyimide Compositions for Solid Lubrication
,”
Journal of the American Society of Lubrication Engineers
, Vol.
20
,
1964
, pp.
225
230
.
209.
Hearle
,
J.
and
Tabor
,
D.
, “
Frictional Behaviour of Textiles
,”
Physical Methods of Investigating Textiles Interscience
,
New York
,
1959
, Chap. 11, pp.
301
319
.
210.
Yoshikawa
,
M.
,
Satoh
,
T.
,
Inubushi
,
S.
,
Ikeda
,
T.
, and
Tazuke
,
S.
, “
Anti-abrasion and Low Friction Properties of Solid Lubricant—Aminimide Cured Epoxy Resin Composites
,”
J. Mater Sci. Lett.
 0022-2461, Vol.
5
, No.
5
,
1986
, pp.
1239
1241
.
211.
Bowden
,
P.
, “
The Effect of Hydrostatic Pressure on the Fibre-Matrix Bond in a Steel-Resin Model Composite
,”
J. Mater Sci.
 0022-2461, Vol.
5
,
1970
, pp.
517
520
.
212.
Harris
,
B.
,
Morley
,
J.
, and
Phillips
,
D.
, “
Fracture Mechanisms in Glass-Reinforced Plastics
,”
J. Mater Sci.
 0022-2461, Vol.
10
,
1975
, pp.
2050
2061
213.
Fusaro
,
R.
, “
Friction and Wear Life Properties of Polyimide Thin Films
,” NASA TN D-6914,
1972
.
214.
Fusaro
,
R.
, “
Friction Transition in Polyimide Films as Related to Molecular Relaxations and Structure
,” NASA TN D-7954,
1975
.
215.
Fusaro
,
R.
, “
Tribological Properties at 25 C of Seven Polyimide Films Bonded to 440C High-Temperature Stainless Steel
,” NASA TP-1944,
1982
.
216.
Skinner
,
J.
,
Gane
,
N.
, and
Tabor
,
D.
, “
Micro-friction of Graphite
,”
Nature (London), Phys. Sci.
 0300-8746, Vol.
232
,
1971
, pp.
195
196
.
217.
Dialead Coal Tar Pitch Carbon Fiber
,
Mitsubishi Chemical
,
1
26
,
2000
.
218.
Space Materials Update Seminar: K-1100X Prepregs for Thermal Management and 954-2A and 954-3 Cyanate Ester Prepregs
,” ICI Fiberite—Tempe Products,
1994
.
219.
Radcliffe
,
D.
and
Posenberg
,
H.
, “
The Thermal Conductivity of Glass-fibre and carbon-fibre/epoxy composites from 2 to 80 K
,”
Cryogenics
 0011-2275, Vol.
22
, No.
5
,
1995
, pp.
245
249
.
220.
Nicholis
,
C.
and
Rosenberg
,
H.
, “
The Thermal Conductivity of Carbon-Carbon Fibre Composites Below 80 K
,”
Cryogenics
 0011-2275, Vol.
24
, No.
7
,
1984
, pp.
355
358
.
221.
Hartwig
,
G.
and
Knaak
,
S.
, “
Fibre-Epoxy Composites at Low Temperatures
,”
Cryogenics
 0011-2275 https://doi.org/10.1016/0011-2275(84)90083-3, Vol.
24
, No.
11
,
1984
, pp.
639
647
.
222.
Bansemir
,
H.
and
Haider
,
O.
, “
Basic Material Data and Structural Analysis of Fibre Composite Components for Space Application
,”
Cryogenics
 0011-2275, Vol.
31
, No.
4
,
1991
, pp.
298
306
.
223.
Bansemir
,
H.
and
Haider
,
O.
, “
Fibre Composite Structures for Space Applications–Recent and Future Developments
,”
Cryogenics
 0011-2275, Vol.
38
, No.
1
,
1998
, pp.
51
59
.
224.
Choy
,
C.
, “
Thermal Conductivity of Polymers
,”
Polymer
 0032-3861 https://doi.org/10.1016/0032-3861(77)90002-7, Vol.
18
,
1977
, pp.
984
1004
.
225.
Yokoyama
,
H.
, “
Thermal Conductivity of Polyimide Film at Cryogenic Temperature
,”
Cryogenics
 0011-2275, Vol.
135
, No.
11
,
1995
, pp.
799
800
.
226.
Greig
,
D.
, “
Low Temperature Thermal Conductivity of Polymers
,”
Cryogenics
 0011-2275, Vol.
28
, No.
4
,
1998
, pp.
243
247
.
227.
Wilkinson
,
S.
, “
Toughened Bismaleimides, Their Carbon Fiber Composites and Interphase Evaluation Studies
,” Dissertation,
Virgina Polytechnic Institute
,
1991
, Chap. 6, pp.
274
337
.
228.
Gutowski
,
W.
, “
Effect of Fiber-Matrix Adhesion on Mechanical Properties of Composites
,”
Controlled Interphases In Composite Materials
,
Elsevier Science
,
New York
,
1990
, pp.
505
520
.
229.
Verpoest
,
I.
,
Desaeger
,
M.
, and
Keunings
,
R.
, “
Critical Review of Direct Micromechanical Test Methods for Interfacial Strength Measurements in Composites
,”
Controlled Interphases in Composite Materials
,
Elsevier Science
,
653
666
,
1990
.
230.
Gaur
,
U.
,
Chou
,
C.
, and
Miller
,
B.
, “
Interfacial Adhesion in Carbon Reinforced Thermosetting and Thermoplastic Composites
,”
Proceedings, American Society for Composites, 6th Tech Conference
,
1991
, pp.
751
758
.
231.
Orso
,
J.
and
Vizzini
,
A.
, “
The Effects of an Expanding Monomer on the Tensile Properties of Graphite/Epoxy
,”
Proceedings, American Society for Composites, 6th Tech Conference
,
1991
, pp.
211
220
.
232.
Chua
,
P.
and
Piggott
,
M.
, “
The Glass Fibre-Polymer Interface: I—Theoretical Consideration for Single Fibre Pull-out Tests
,”
Composites Science and Technology
,
Elsevier Applied Science
,
New York
,
1985
, Vol.
22
, pp.
33
42
.
233.
Chua
,
P.
and
Piggott
,
M.
, “
The Glass Fibre-Polymer Interface: II—Work of Fracture and Shear Stresses
,”
Composites Science and Technology
,
Elsevier Applied Science
,
New York
,
1985
, Vol.
22
, pp.
107
119
.
234.
Chua
,
P.
and
Piggott
,
M.
, “
The Glass Fibre-Polymer Interface: III—Pressure and Coefficient of Fraction
,”
Composites Science and Technology
,
Elsevier Applied Science
,
New York
,
1985
, Vol.
22
, pp.
185
196
.
235.
Chua
,
P.
and
Piggott
,
M.
, “
The Glass Fibre-Polymer Interface: IV—Controlled Shrinkage Polymers
,”
Composites Science and Technology
,
Elsevier Applied Science
,
New York
,
1985
, Vol.
22
, pp.
245
258
.
236.
Chang
,
T.
and
Jang
,
B.
, “
The Effects of Fiber Surface Treatments by a Cold Plasma in Carbon Fiber/BMI Composites
,”
Mater Res. Soc. Symp. Proc.
, Vol.
170
,
1990
, pp.
321
326
.
237.
Yip
,
P.
and
Lin
,
S.
, “
Effect of Surface Oxygen on Adhesion of Carbon Fiber Reinforced Composites
,”
Mater Res. Soc. Symp. Proc.
, Vol.
170
,
1990
, pp.
339
344
.
238.
Gaur
,
U.
and
Davidson
,
T.
, “
Interfacial Effects of Plasma Treatment on Fiber Pull-out
,”
Mater Res. Soc. Symp. Proc.
, Vol.
170
,
1990
, pp.
309
314
.
239.
Jang
,
B.
, “
Control of Interfacial Adhesion in Continuous Carbon and Kevlar Fiber Reinforced Polymer Composites
,”
Compos. Sci. Technol.
 0266-3538, Vol.
44
,
1992
, pp.
333
349
.
240.
Harris
,
B.
,
Morley
,
J.
, and
Phillips
,
D.
, “
Fracture Mechanisms in Glass-Reinforced Plastics
,”
J. Mater Sci.
 0022-2461, Vol.
10
,
1975
, pp.
2050
2061
.
241.
Kirk
,
J.
,
Munro
,
M.
, and
Beaumont
,
P.
, “
The Fracture Energy of Hybrid Carbon and Glass Fibre Composites
,”
J. Mater Sci.
 0022-2461, Vol.
13
,
1978
, pp.
2197
2204
.
This content is only available via PDF.
You do not currently have access to this content.