Graphical Abstract Figure
Abstract
Large commercial buildings may display demand flexibility, which reduces electric energy expenses for the building owner and carbon emissions from grid operations, provides distributed energy resources, and increases the penetration of renewable energy sources. Demand-controlled ventilation (DCV) and building thermal mass control can individually and jointly provide such flexibility. The performance and financial payback of these technology options can be dramatically improved if based on hourly electric prices and carbon emissions rates. In this study, a modeled but actual large office building, simulated using New York City hourly electric prices, hourly CO2e emissions rates, and weather data for the summer 2019 cooling season is based on these dynamic driving parameters. A joint optimization of a building’s thermal mass and indoor CO2 content is presented. Superior energy savings and carbon emissions reductions are found for the joint optimization scenario when compared to both the baseline operation and individual optimization of building thermal mass and indoor CO2 content. These findings motivate the development of a real-time joint control system that utilizes closed-loop model predictive control (MPC) to optimally harness both sources of demand flexibility, a system that would require the future development of forecasting algorithms for external and control-oriented system models.
References
1.
International Journal of Thermal Sciences
, 2019
, “Annual Energy Outlook 2020. Table 5,” https://www.eia.gov/outlooks/aeo, Accessed June 1, 2022.2.
International Journal of Thermal Sciences
, 2019
, “Annual Energy Outlook 2020. Table 18,” https://www.eia.gov/outlooks/aeo, Accessed June 1, 2022.3.
Masa-Bote
, D.
, Castillo-Cagigal
, M.
, Matallanas
, E.
, Caamaño-Martín
, E.
, Gutiérrez
, A.
, Monasterio-Huelín
, F.
, and Jiménez-Leube
, J.
, 2014
, “Improving Photovoltaics Grid Integration Through Short Time Forecasting and Self-consumption
,” Appl. Energy.
, 125
, pp. 103
–113
. 4.
Finn
, P.
, O’connell
, M.
, and Fitzpatrick
, C.
, 2013
, “Demand Side Management of a Domestic Dishwasher: Wind Energy Gains, Financial Savings and Peak-Time Load Reduction
,” Appl. Energy.
, 101
, pp. 678
–685
. 5.
Roth
, A.
, 2019
, “Grid-interactive Efficient Buildings Technical Report Series: Whole-Building Controls, Sensors, Modeling, and Analytics
,” US Department of Energy, https://www1.eere.energy.gov/buildings/pdfs/75478.pdf, Accessed June 1, 2022.6.
Henze
, G. P.
, Felsmann
, C.
, and Knabe
, G.
, 2004
, “Evaluation of Optimal Control for Active and Passive Building Thermal Storage
,” Int. J. Therm. Sci.
, 43
(2
), pp. 173
–183
. 7.
Braun
, J. E.
, 1990
, “Reducing Energy Costs and Peak Electrical Demand Through Optimal Control of Building Thermal Storage
,” ASHRAE Trans.
, 96
(2
), pp. 876
–888
.8.
Henze
, G. P.
, Dodier
, R. H.
, and Krarti
, M.
, 1997
, “Development of a Predictive Optimal Controller for Thermal Energy Storage Systems
,” HVAC&R Res.
, 3
(3
), pp. 233
–264
. 9.
Lee
, K.
, and Braun
, J. E.
, 2008
, “Evaluation of Methods for Determining Demand-Limiting Setpoint Trajectories in Buildings Using Short-Term Measurements
,” Build. Environ.
, 43
(10
), pp. 1769
–1783
. 10.
Xu
, P.
, 2009
, “Case Study of Demand Shifting With Thermal Mass in Two Large Commercial Buildings
,” ASHRAE Trans.
, 115
(2
).11.
Braun
, J. E.
, Montgomery
, K. W.
, and Chaturvedi
, N.
, 2001
, “Evaluating the Performance of Building Thermal Mass Control Strategies
,” HVAC&R Res.
, 7
(4
), pp. 403
–428
. 12.
Braun
, J. E.
, 2003
, “Load Control Using Building Thermal Mass
,” ASME J. Sol. Energy. Eng.
, 125
(3
), pp. 292
–301
. 13.
Corbin
, C. D.
, and Henze
, G. P.
, 2017
, “Predictive Control of Residential HVAC and Its Impact on the Grid. Part I: Simulation Framework and Models
,” J. Build. Perform. Simulat.
, 10
(3
), pp. 294
–312
. 14.
Corbin
, C. D.
, and Henze
, G. P.
, 2017
, “Predictive Control of Residential HVAC and Its Impact on the Grid. Part II: Simulation Studies of Residential HVAC as a Supply Following Resource
,” J. Build. Perform. Simulat.
, 10
(4
), pp. 365
–377
. 15.
Pavlak
, G. S.
, Henze
, G. P.
, and Cushing
, V. J.
, 2014
, “Optimizing Commercial Building Participation in Energy and Ancillary Service Markets
,” Energy Build.
, 81
, pp. 115
–126
. 16.
Pavlak
, G. S.
, Henze
, G. P.
, and Cushing
, V. J.
, 2015
, “Evaluating Synergistic Effect of Optimally Controlling Commercial Building Thermal Mass Portfolios
,” Energy
, 84
, pp. 161
–176
. 17.
May-Ostendorp
, P.
, Henze
, G. P.
, Corbin
, C. D.
, Rajagopalan
, B.
, and Felsmann
, C.
, 2011
, “Model-Predictive Control of Mixed-Mode Buildings With Rule Extraction
,” Build. Environ.
, 46
(2
), pp. 428
–437
. 18.
Corbin
, C. D.
, Henze
, G. P.
, and May-Ostendorp
, P.
, 2013
, “A Model Predictive Control Optimization Environment for Real-Time Commercial Building Application
,” J. Build. Perform. Simulat.
, 6
(3
), pp. 159
–174
. 19.
Roth
, A.
, 2016
, “QCoefficient Uses EnergyPlus to Reduce Willis Tower Energy Bills
,” Department of Energy Office of Energy Efficiency & Renewable Energy, https://www.energy.gov/eere/buildings/articles/qcoefficient-uses-energyplus-reduce-willis-tower-energy-bills, Accessed June 1, 2022.20.
Hederman
, W.
, and Cushing
, V.
, 2020
, “Demonstration of Effective Building-Grid Integration
,” IEEE Smart Grid, https://smartgrid.ieee.org/bulletins/april-2020/demonstration-of-effective-building-grid-integration, Accessed June 1, 2022.21.
Persily
, A.
, 1997
, “Evaluating Building IAQ and Ventilation With Indoor Carbon Dioxide
,” ASHRAE Trans.
, 103
, pp. 193
–204
.22.
Persily
, A.
, and Dols
, W. S.
, 1990
, “The Relation of CO2 Concentration to Office Building Ventilation,” Air Change Rate and Airtightness in Buildings
, M.
Sherman
, ed., ASTM International
, West Conshohocken, PA
.23.
Sundell
, J.
, Levin
, H.
, Nazaroff
, W. W.
, Cain
, W. S.
, Fisk
, W. J.
, Grimsrud
, D. T.
, Gyntelberg
, F.
, et al., 2011
, “Ventilation Rates and Health: Multidisciplinary Review of the Scientific Literature
,” Indoor Air
, 21
(3
), pp. 191
–204
. 24.
Fisk
, W.
, Mirer
, A.
, and Mendell
, M.
, 2009
, “Quantitative Relationship of Sick Building Syndrome Symptoms With Ventilation Rates
,” Indoor Air
, 19
(2
), pp. 159
–165
. 25.
Frontczak
, M.
, Schiavon
, S.
, Goins
, J.
, Arens
, E.
, Zhang
, H.
, and Wargocki
, P.
, 2012
, “Quantitative Relationships Between Occupant Satisfaction and Satisfaction Aspects of Indoor Environmental Quality and Building Design
,” Indoor Air
, 22
(2
), pp. 119
–131
. 26.
Mendell
, M.
, Lei-Gomez
, Q.
, Mirer
, A.
, Seppänen
, O.
, and Brunner
, G.
, 2008
, “Risk Factors in Heating, Ventilating, and Air-Conditioning Systems for Occupant Symptoms in US Office Buildings: The US EPA BASE Study
,” Indoor Air
, 18
(4
), pp. 301
–316
. 27.
Bernstein
, J. A.
, Alexis
, N.
, Bacchus
, H.
, Bernstein
, I. L.
, Fritz
, P.
, Horner
, E.
, Li
, N.
, Mason
, S.
, Nel
, A.
, and Oullette
, J.
, 2008
, “The Health Effects of Nonindustrial Indoor Air Pollution
,” J. Allergy Clin. Immunol.
, 121
(3
), pp. 585
–591
. 28.
Li
, Y.
, Leung
, G. M.
, Tang
, J.
, Yang
, X.
, Chao
, C.
, Lin
, J. Z.
, Lu
, J.
, Nielsen
, P. V.
, Niu
, J.
, and Qian
, H.
, 2007
, “Role of Ventilation in Airborne Transmission of Infectious Agents in the Built Environment—A Multidisciplinary Systematic Review
,” Indoor Air
, 17
(1
), pp. 2
–18
. 29.
Wargocki
, P.
, Sundell
, J.
, Bischof
, W.
, Brundrett
, G.
, Fanger
, P. O.
, Gyntelberg
, F.
, Hanssen
, S.
, Harrison
, P.
, Pickering
, A.
, and Seppänen
, O.
, 2002
, “Ventilation and Health in Non-industrial Indoor Environments: Report From a European Multidisciplinary Scientific Consensus Meeting (EUROVEN)
,” Indoor Air
, 12
(2
), pp. 113
–128
. 30.
Wargocki
, P.
, Wyon
, D. P.
, Sundell
, J.
, Clausen
, G.
, and Fanger
, P. O.
, 2000
, “The Effects of Outdoor Air Supply Rate in an Office on Perceived Air Quality, Sick Building Syndrome (SBS) Symptoms and Productivity
,” Indoor Air
, 10
(4
), pp. 222
–236
. 31.
Pérez-Lombard
, L.
, Ortiz
, J.
, and Pout
, C.
, 2008
, “A Review on Buildings Energy Consumption Information
,” Energy Build.
, 40
(3
), pp. 394
–398
. 32.
Lam
, J. C.
, Wan
, K. K.
, and Yang
, L.
, 2008
, “Sensitivity Analysis and Energy Conservation Measures Implications
,” Energy. Convers. Manage.
, 49
(11
), pp. 3170
–3177
. 33.
Rackes
, A.
, and Waring
, M. S.
, 2014
, “Using Multiobjective Optimizations to Discover Dynamic Building Ventilation Strategies That Can Improve Indoor Air Quality and Reduce Energy Use
,” Energy Build.
, 75
, pp. 272
–280
. 34.
Ben-David
, T.
, Rackes
, A.
, Lo
, L. J.
, Wen
, J.
, and Waring
, M. S.
, 2019
, “Optimizing Ventilation: Theoretical Study on Increasing Rates in Offices to Maximize Occupant Productivity With Constrained Additional Energy Use
,” Build. Environ.
, 166
, p. 106314
. 35.
Fisk
, W. J.
, Black
, D.
, and Brunner
, G.
, 2012
, “Changing Ventilation Rates in US Offices: Implications for Health, Work Performance, Energy, and Associated Economics
,” Build. Environ.
, 47
, pp. 368
–372
. 36.
Seppänen
, O. A.
, and Fisk
, W.
, 2006
, “Some Quantitative Relations Between Indoor Environmental Quality and Work Performance or Health
,” HVAC&R Res.
, 12
(4
), pp. 957
–973
. 37.
Milton
, D. K.
, Glencross
, P. M.
, and Walters
, M. D.
, 2000
, “Risk of Sick Leave Associated With Outdoor Air Supply Rate, Humidification, and Occupant Complaints
,” Indoor Air
, 10
(4
), pp. 212
–221
. 38.
Mossolly
, M.
, Ghali
, K.
, and Ghaddar
, N.
, 2009
, “Optimal Control Strategy for a Multi-zone Air Conditioning System Using a Genetic Algorithm
,” Energy
, 34
(1
), pp. 58
–66
. 39.
House
, J. M.
, and Smith
, T. F.
, 1995
, “A System Approach to Optimal Control for HVAC and Building Systems
,” American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers.40.
QCoefficient, Inc.
, “QCoefficient Use Cases,” https://www.buildingsasbatteries.com/use-cases, Accessed June 23, 2020.41.
Greensfelder
, E. M.
, Henze
, G. P.
, and Cushing
, V. J.
, 2010
, “Towards Optimizing Building Energy Use to Reduce Electric System Carbon Emissions
,” Energy Sustainab.
, 43949
, pp. 999
–1008
. 42.
Zhao
, P.
, Henze
, G. P.
, Plamp
, S.
, and Cushing
, V. J.
, 2013
, “Evaluation of Commercial Building HVAC Systems as Frequency Regulation Providers
,” Energy Build.
, 67
, pp. 225
–235
. 43.
NYC Sustainable Buildings
, 2019
, “Local Law 97,” https://www1.nyc.gov/site/sustainablebuildings/ll97/local-law-97.page, Accessed June 1, 2022.44.
New York State
, 2019
, “Climate Leadership and Community Protection Act,” https://climate.ny.gov/Our-Climate-Act, Accessed June 1, 2022.45.
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration and National Weather Service
, “Past Weather,” https://www.weather.gov/okx/LaGuardiaHistorical, Accessed June 1, 2022.46.
New York Independent System Operator
, “Energy Market & Operational Data: Pricing Data,” https://www.nyiso.com/energy-market-operational-data, Accessed June 1, 2022.47.
Huetteman
, T. J.
, Justine
, and Schreifels
, J.
, 2020
, “Using eGRID for Environmental Footprinting of Electricity Purchases,” U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, https://www.epa.gov/egrid/egrid-technical-documents, Accessed June 1, 2022.48.
QCoefficient
, 2020
, “Carbon,” https://www.buildingsasbatteries.com/carbon-reduction, Accessed June 1, 2022.49.
ASHRAE
, 2017
, “ASHRAE Standard 55-2017: Thermal Environmental Conditions for Human Occupancy,” American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Atlanta, GA.50.
ASHRAE
, 2019
, “ASHRAE Standard 62-2019: Ventilation for Acceptable Indoor Air Quality.”51.
Berg-Munch
, B.
, Clausen
, G.
, and Fanger
, P.
, 1986
, “Ventilation Requirements for the Control of Body Odor in Spaces Occupied by Women
,” Environ. Inter.
, 12
(1–4
), pp. 195
–199
. 52.
Cain
, W. S.
, Leaderer
, B. P.
, Isseroff
, R.
, Berglund
, L. G.
, Huey
, R. J.
, Lipsitt
, E. D.
, and Perlman
, D.
, 1983
, “Ventilation Requirements in Buildings—I. Control of Occupancy Odor and Tobacco Smoke Odor
,” Atmos. Environ. (1967)
, 17
(6
), pp. 1183
–1197
. 53.
Fanger
, P.
, and Berg-Munch
, B.
, 1983
, “Ventilation and Body Odor
,” Proceedings of Management of Atmospheres in Tightly Enclosed Spaces, ASHRAE, Santa Barbara, CA, Oct. 17–21, pp. 45
–50
.54.
Kimura
, K.
, 1990
, “Pilot Study on Addition of Olf Units for Perceived Air Pollution Sources
,” Proceedings of Annual SHASE Meeting, Sapporo, Japan, pp. 321
–324
.55.
Yaglou
, C.
, Riley
, E.
, and Coggins
, D.
, 1936
, “Ventilation Requirements
,” ASHRAE Trans.
, 42
(1
), pp. 133
–162
.56.
May-Ostendorp
, P.
, Henze
, G.
, Rajagopalan
, B.
, and Corbin
, C.
, 2012
, “Extraction of Supervisory Building Control Rules From Model Predictive Control of Windows in a Mixed Mode Building
,” J. Build. Perform. Simul.
, 6
, pp. 1
–21
.
